comp.tf - User contributions [en]

Relic

2017-08-09T21:32:42Z

81.101.106.71:

{{stub}}

Relic AKA Jim Vickers is the best spy in UGC silver!!!

Granary Pro

2017-08-09T21:26:12Z

81.101.106.71:

[[File:Zaprice One cell granary 03.JPG|thumb|A simple granary]]
[[File:Chest and Lid with Model Granaries.jpg|thumb|[[Ancient Greek]] [[geometric art]] box in the shape of granaries, 850 BC. On display in the Ancient Agora Museum in Athens, housed in the [[Stoa of Attalos]].]]
[[File:Leuit os 080815-2283 srna.jpg|thumb|right|Leuit, [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] traditional granary, in [[West Java]], Indonesia.]]
[[File:Kashan granary Barry Kent.JPG|thumb|Granary in [[Kashan]], Iran]]
[[File:Bydgoszcz Spichrze.jpg|thumb|A big granary in [[Bydgoszcz]], Poland, on the [[Brda (river)|Brda river]].]]

{{about|granaries in general|the [[Bristol]] granary|Granary, Bristol|the record label|Granary Music}}
{{lead too short|date=December 2015}}
A '''granary''' is a storehouse or room in a [[barn]] for [[threshing|threshed]] [[cereal|grain]] or [[compound feed|animal feed]]. Ancient or primitive granaries are most often made out of [[pottery]]. Granaries are often built above the ground to keep the stored food away from mice and other animals.

==Early origins==
From ancient times grain has been stored in bulk. The oldest granaries yet found date back to [[10th millennium BC|9500 BC]]<ref name="PNAS09">{{Cite journal | date=Jun 2009 | pages = 10966–10970| issn = 0027-8424| last1 = Kuijt | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0812764106 | pmc = 2700141 | pmid = 19549877| issue = 27 | volume = 106 | title = Evidence for food storage and predomestication granaries 11,000 years ago in the Jordan Valley | first2 = B.| url = http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=19549877 | format = Free full text | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America| last2 = Finlayson| first1 = I.|bibcode = 2009PNAS..10610966K }}</ref> and are located in the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] settlements in the [[Jordan River|Jordan Valley]]. The first were located in places between other buildings. However beginning around [[9th millennium BC|8500 BC]], they were moved inside houses, and by [[8th millennium BC|7500 BC]] storage occurred in special rooms.<ref name="PNAS09"/> The first granaries measured 3 x 3 m on the outside and had suspended floors that protected the grain from rodents and insects and provided air circulation.<ref name="PNAS09"/>

These granaries are followed by those in [[Mehrgarh]] in the [[Indus Valley]] from 6000 BC. The [[ancient Egypt]]ians made a practice of preserving grain in years of plenty against years of scarcity. The climate of Egypt being very dry, grain could be stored in pits for a long time without discernible loss of quality. The silo pit, as it has been termed, has been a favorite way of storing grain from time immemorial in all oriental lands{{clarifyme|date=May 2016}}. In Turkey and Persia, [[usurer]]s used to buy up [[wheat]] or [[barley]] when comparatively cheap, and store it in hidden pits against seasons of dearth. In Malta a relatively large stock of wheat was preserved in some hundreds of pits (silos) cut in the rock. A single silo stored from 60 to 80 tons of wheat, which, with proper precautions, kept in good condition for four years or more.

==East Asia==
[[File:Han Dynasty Granary west of Dunhuang.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Han dynasty]] granary on [[Silk Road]] west of [[Dunhuang]]]]
Simple storage granaries raised up on four or more posts appeared in the [[Yangshao culture]] in China and after the onset of intensive agriculture in the Korean peninsula during the [[Mumun pottery period]] (c. 1000 B.C.) as well as in the Japanese archipelago during the Final [[Jōmon]]/Early [[Yayoi period]]s (c. 800 B.C.). In the archaeological vernacular of Northeast Asia, these features are lumped with those that may have also functioned as residences and together are called 'raised floor buildings'.

==Southeast Asia==
In [[Indonesian architecture|vernacular architecture]] of [[Indonesia|Indonesian archipelago]] granaries are made of wood and bamboo materials and most of them are built raised up on four or more posts to avoid rodents and insects. Examples of Indonesian granary is [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] ''leuit'' and [[Minangkabau people|Minang]] ''[[rangkiang]]''.

==Great Britain==
In Great Britain small granaries were built on [[mushroom]] shaped stumps called [[staddle stones]]. They were built of timber frame construction and often had slate roofs. Larger ones were similar to [[linhay]]s, but with the upper floor enclosed. Access to the first floor was usually via stone staircase on the outside wall.<ref>http://www.southhams.gov.uk/index/business_index/ksp_development_and_planning/ksp-development_and_planning-conservation/sp-development_and_planning-barnguide.htm The Barn Guide by South Hams District Council</ref>

Towards the close of the 19th century, warehouses specially intended for holding grain began to multiply in Great Britain. There are climatic difficulties in the way of storing grain in Great Britain on a large scale, but these difficulties have been largely overcome.

==Modern==
[[File:Shelby County, Iowa. These granaries are located near Irwin Village, and much of the corn which is n . . . - NARA - 522350.jpg|thumb|Modern steel granaries in the United States]]
Modern grain farming operations often use manufactured steel granaries to store grain on-site until it can be trucked to major storage facilities in anticipation of shipping. The large ''mechanized'' facilities, particularly seen in Russia and North America are known as [[grain elevator]]s.
[[File:Port Perry grain mill and elevator circa 1930.jpg|thumb|The Port Perry mill and grain elevator, granary circa 1930. Originally built in 1873, the building remains a major landmark to this day as the oldest in Canada. The original line of the PW&PP Railway can be seen in the foreground.]]

== Moisture control ==
Grain must be kept away from moisture for as long as possible to preserve it in good condition and prevent [[molds|mold growth]]. Newly harvested grain brought into a granary tends to contain excess moisture, which encourages mold growth leading to fermentation and heating, both of which are undesirable and affect quality. Fermentation generally spoils grain and may cause chemical changes that create poisonous [[mycotoxins]].

One traditional remedy is to spread the grain in thin layers on a floor, where it is turned to aerate it thoroughly. Once the grain is sufficiently dry it can be transferred to a granary for storage. A modern variation on this, is to use a grain auger to move grain stored in one grainery to another.

In modern silos, grain is typically force-aerated ''in situ'' or circulated through external [[grain drying]] equipment.

==See also==
*[[Hórreo]]
*[[Raccard]]
*[[Storage silo]]
*[[Staddle stones]] Used to lift granaries off the ground to prevent access by vermin, etc.
*[[Corn crib]]
*[[Groote Schuur]], the stately South African home was originally a granary.
*[[Rice barn]]
*[[Treppenspeicher]]
*[[Ghorfa]]
*[[Parish granary]]
*[[Port Perry]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{1911}}

{{wiktionary}}
{{commons category|Granaries}}

{{Prehistoric technology}}

[[Category:Granaries| ]]
[[Category:Containers]]
[[Category:Vernacular architecture]]
[[Category:Grain production]]
== Jim Vickers rating ==
5/5 Jims

Sunshine

2017-08-09T21:24:05Z

81.101.106.71:

{{About|the star}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2014}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Infobox
| bodystyle = border-collapse:collapse
| title = The Sun [[Image:Sun symbol.svg|25px]]
| image = [[File:Sun white.jpg|290px]]
| caption = Sun with [[sunspot]]s and [[limb darkening]] as seen in [[visible light]] with solar filter.
| headerstyle = background:#FCC857
| labelstyle = padding:2px
| datastyle = padding:2px

| header1 = Observation data
| label2 = Mean distance from [[Earth]]
| data2 = 1 [[astronomical unit|au]] ≈ {{val|1.496|e=8|u=km}} 8 min 19 s at [[speed of light|light speed]]
| label3 = [[Apparent magnitude|Visual brightness]] (''V'')
| data3 = −26.74<ref name=nssdc>{{cite web|last=Williams|first=D. R. |date=1 July 2013 |title=Sun Fact Sheet |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/sunfact.html |publisher=[[NASA Goddard Space Flight Center]] |accessdate=12 August 2013}}</ref>
| label4 = [[Absolute magnitude]]
| data4 = 4.83<ref name=nssdc />
| label5 = [[Spectral classification]]
| data5 = G2V<ref>{{cite book|last=Zombeck|first=Martin V.|date=1990|title=Handbook of Space Astronomy and Astrophysics 2nd edition|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|url=http://ads.harvard.edu/books/hsaa/}}</ref>
| label6 = [[Metallicity]]
| data6 = ''Z'' = 0.0122<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Asplund |first1=M. |last2=Grevesse |first2=N. |last3=Sauval |first3=A. J. |date=2006 |title=The new solar abundances – Part I: the observations |journal=[[Communications in Asteroseismology]] |volume=147 |pages=76–79 |bibcode=2006CoAst.147...76A |doi=10.1553/cia147s76}}</ref>
| label7 = [[Angular size]]
| data7 = 31.6–32.7 [[minutes of arc]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Eclipse 99: Frequently Asked Questions |url=http://education.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/pages/faq.html |publisher=[[NASA]] |accessdate=24 October 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527142627/http://education.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/pages/faq.html |archivedate=27 May 2010 |df= }}</ref>
| label8 = Adjectives
| data8 = Solar
| header10 = [[Orbit]]al characteristics
| label11 = Mean distance from [[Milky Way]] core
| data11 = ≈ {{val|2.7|e=17|u=km}} {{nowrap|{{val|fmt=commas|27200|ul=light-years}}}}
| label12 = [[Galactic year|Galactic period]]
| data12 = (2.25–2.50){{e|8}} [[julian year (astronomy)|yr]]
| label13 = [[Velocity]]
| data13 = ≈ {{val|220|u=km/s}} (orbit around the center of the Milky Way) ≈ {{val|20|u=km/s}} (relative to average velocity of other stars in stellar neighborhood) ≈ {{val|370|u=km/s}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hinshaw |first=G. |display-authors=etal |date=2009 |title=Five-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe observations: data processing, sky maps, and basic results |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series]] |volume=180 |issue=2 |pages=225–245 |arxiv=0803.0732 |bibcode=2009ApJS..180..225H |doi=10.1088/0067-0049/180/2/225}}</ref> (relative to the [[Cosmic microwave background radiation#CMBR dipole anisotropy|cosmic microwave background]])

| header20 = Physical characteristics
| label21 = Equatorial [[radius]]
| data21 = [[Solar radius|695,700]] km<ref name=IAU2015resB3>{{citation | first1=E.E. | last1=Mamajek | first2=A. | last2=Prsa | first3=G. | last3=Torres | first4=al. | last4=et | title=IAU 2015 Resolution B3 on Recommended Nominal Conversion Constants for Selected Solar and Planetary Properties | arxiv=1510.07674}}</ref> {{val|109|u=R_Earth}}<ref name=sse/>
| label22 = Equatorial [[circumference]]
| data22 = {{val|4.379|e=6|u=km}}<ref name=sse/> 109 × Earth<ref name=sse>{{cite web |title=Solar System Exploration: Planets: Sun: Facts & Figures |url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Sun&Display=Facts&System=Metric |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080102034758/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Sun&Display=Facts&System=Metric |archivedate=2 January 2008 |publisher=[[NASA]]
}}</ref>
| label23 = [[Flattening]]
| data23 = {{val|9|e=-6}}
| label24 = [[Surface area]]
| data24 = {{val|6.09|e=12|u=km2}}<ref name=sse/> {{nowrap|{{val|fmt=commas|12000}}}} × Earth<ref name=sse/>
| label25 = [[Volume]]
| data25 = {{val|1.41|e=18|u=km3}}<ref name=sse/> {{nowrap|{{val|fmt=commas|1300000}}}} × Earth
| label26 = [[Mass]]
| data26 = {{val|1.98855|.00025|e=30|u=kg}}<ref name=nssdc/> {{nowrap|{{val|fmt=commas|333000|u=Earth mass}}}}<ref name=nssdc/>
| label27 = Average [[density]]
| data27 = {{val|1.408|u=g/cm3}}<ref name=nssdc/><ref name=sse/><ref>{{cite web |last=Ko |first=M. |date=1999 |title=Density of the Sun |url=http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1999/MayKo.shtml |editor=Elert, G. |work=The Physics Factbook}}</ref> {{val|0.255}} × Earth<ref name=nssdc/><ref name=sse/>
| label28 = Center [[density]] (modeled)
| data28 = {{val|162.2|u=g/cm3}}<ref name=nssdc/> {{val|12.4}} × Earth
| label29 = Equatorial [[surface gravity]]
| data29 = {{val|274.0|u=m/s2}}<ref name=nssdc/> {{val|27.94|u=[[g-force|''g'']]}} {{nowrap|{{val|fmt=commas|27542.29|u=''[[cgs]]''}}}} 28 × Earth<ref name=sse/>
| label30 = [[Moment of inertia factor]]
| data30 = {{val|0.070}}<ref name=nssdc /> (estimate)
| label31 = [[Escape velocity]] (from the surface)
| data31 = {{val|617.7|u=km/s}}<ref name=sse/> 55 × Earth<ref name=sse/>
| label32 = Temperature
| data32 = Center (modeled): {{val|1.57|e=7|u=K}}<ref name=nssdc/> [[Photosphere]] (effective): {{nowrap|{{val|fmt=commas|5772|ul=K}}}}<ref name=nssdc/> [[Corona]]: ≈ {{val|5|e=6|u=K}}
| label33 = [[Luminosity]] (Lsol)
| data33 = {{val|3.828|e=26|ul=W}}<ref name=nssdc/> ≈ {{val|3.75|e=28|u=[[lumen (unit)|lm]]}} ≈ {{val|98|u=lm/W}} [[Luminous efficacy|efficacy]]
| label34 = Mean [[radiance]] (Isol)
| data34 = {{val|2.009|e=7|u=W·m−2·sr−1}}
| label35 = Age
| data35 = ≈ 4.6 billion years<ref name="Bonanno">{{Cite journal |last=Bonanno |first=A. |last2=Schlattl |first2=H. |last3=Paternò |first3=L. |date=2008 |title=The age of the Sun and the relativistic corrections in the EOS |journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] |volume=390 |issue=3 |pages=1115–1118 |arxiv=astro-ph/0204331 |bibcode=2002A&A...390.1115B |doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20020749 |ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|url=//www.sciencemag.org/content/338/6107/651.full|title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk|date=2 November 2012|accessdate=17 March 2014|doi=10.1126/science.1226919 |journal=Science|volume=338 |issue= 6107 |pages=651–655|bibcode = 2012Sci...338..651C |pmid=23118187 | last1 = Connelly | first1 = JN | last2 = Bizzarro | first2 = M | last3 = Krot | first3 = AN | last4 = Nordlund | first4 = Å | last5 = Wielandt | first5 = D | last6 = Ivanova | first6 = MA}}{{Registration required}}</ref>

| header40 = [[Rotation]] characteristics
| label41 = [[Axial tilt|Obliquity]]
| data41 = 7.25°<ref name=nssdc/> (to the [[ecliptic]]) 67.23° (to the [[galactic plane]])
| label42 = [[Right ascension]] of North pole<ref name="iau-iag">{{cite web |last1=Seidelmann |first1=P. K. |display-authors=etal |title=Report Of The IAU/IAG Working Group On Cartographic Coordinates And Rotational Elements Of The Planets And Satellites: 2000 |url=http://www.hnsky.org/iau-iag.htm |date=2000 |accessdate=22 March 2006}}</ref>
| data42 = 286.13° {{nowrap|19 h 4 min 30 s}}
| label43 = [[Declination]] of North pole
| data43 = +63.87° 63° 52' North
| label44 = Sidereal [[Solar rotation|rotation period]] (at equator)
| data44 = 25.05 d<ref name=nssdc/>
| label45 = (at 16° latitude)
| data45 = 25.38 d<ref name=nssdc/> {{nowrap|25 d 9 h 7 min 12 s}}<ref name="iau-iag"/>
| label46 = (at poles)
| data46 = 34.4 d<ref name=nssdc/>
| label47 = Rotation velocity (at equator)
| data47 = {{val|7.189|e=3|u=km/h}}<ref name="sse"/>

| header50 = [[photosphere|Photospheric]] composition (by mass)
| label51 = [[Hydrogen]]
| data51 = 73.46%<ref>{{cite web |title=The Sun's Vital Statistics |url=http://solar-center.stanford.edu/vitalstats.html |publisher=[[Stanford Solar Center]] |accessdate=29 July 2008}} Citing {{cite book |last=Eddy |first=J. |date=1979 |title=A New Sun: The Solar Results From Skylab |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-402/contents.htm |page=37 |publisher=[[NASA]] |id=NASA SP-402}}</ref>
| label52 = [[Helium]]
| data52 = 24.85%
| label53 = [[Oxygen]]
| data53 = 0.77%
| label54 = [[Carbon]]
| data54 = 0.29%
| label55 = [[Iron]]
| data55 = 0.16%
| label56 = [[Neon]]
| data56 = 0.12%
| label57 = [[Nitrogen]]
| data57 = 0.09%
| label58 = [[Silicon]]
| data58 = 0.07%
| label59 = [[Magnesium]]
| data59 = 0.05%
| label60 = [[Sulfur]]
| data60 = 0.04%
}}

The '''Sun''' is the [[star]] at the center of the [[Solar System]]. It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot [[plasma (physics)|plasma]],<ref>
{{Cite news
|url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/02oct_oblatesun/
|title=How Round is the Sun?
|publisher=NASA
|date=2 October 2008
|accessdate=7 March 2011
}}</ref><ref>
{{Cite news
|url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2011/06feb_fullsun/
|title=First Ever STEREO Images of the Entire Sun
|publisher=NASA
|date=6 February 2011
|accessdate=7 March 2011
}}</ref> with internal [[convection|convective]] motion that generates a [[magnetic field]] via a [[Solar dynamo|dynamo process]].<ref name="doi10.1146/annurev-astro-081913-040012">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1146/annurev-astro-081913-040012| title = Solar Dynamo Theory| journal = Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics| volume = 52| pages = 251–290| year = 2014| last1 = Charbonneau | first1 = P. |bibcode = 2014ARA&A..52..251C }}</ref> It is by far the most important source of [[energy]] for [[life]] on [[Earth]]. Its diameter is about 109 times that of Earth, and [[Solar mass|its mass]] is about 330,000 times that of Earth, accounting for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System.<ref name=Woolfson00>
{{Cite journal
|last=Woolfson |first=M.
|date=2000
|title=The origin and evolution of the solar system
|journal=[[Astronomy & Geophysics]]
|volume=41 |issue=1 |page=12
|bibcode=2000A&G....41a..12W
|doi=10.1046/j.1468-4004.2000.00012.x
|ref=harv
}}</ref>
About three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of [[hydrogen]] (~73%); the rest is mostly [[helium]] (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including [[oxygen]], [[carbon]], [[neon]], and [[iron]].<ref name=basu2008>
{{Cite journal
|last=Basu |first=S.
|last2=Antia |first2=H. M.
|date=2008
|title=Helioseismology and Solar Abundances
|journal=[[Physics Reports]]
|volume=457 |issue=5–6 |pages=217–283
|arxiv=0711.4590
|bibcode=2008PhR...457..217B
|doi=10.1016/j.physrep.2007.12.002
|ref=harv
}}</ref>

The Sun is a [[G-type main-sequence star]] (G2V) based on its [[stellar classification|spectral class]]. As such, it is informally referred to as a yellow dwarf. It formed approximately 4.6 billion<ref group=lower-alpha name=short>All numbers in this article are short scale. One billion is 109, or 1,000,000,000.</ref><ref name="Bonanno" /><ref name="Connelly2012">{{cite journal |title=The Absolute Chronology and Thermal Processing of Solids in the Solar Protoplanetary Disk |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |first1=James N. |last1=Connelly |first2=Martin |last2=Bizzarro |first3=Alexander N. |last3=Krot |first4=Åke |last4=Nordlund |first5=Daniel |last5=Wielandt |first6=Marina A. |last6=Ivanova |volume=338 |issue=6107 |pages=651–655 |date=2 November 2012 |doi=10.1126/science.1226919 |bibcode=2012Sci...338..651C |pmid=23118187}}</ref> years ago from the [[gravitational collapse]] of matter within a region of a large [[molecular cloud]]. Most of this matter gathered in the center, whereas the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that [[formation and evolution of the Solar System|became the Solar System]]. The central mass became so hot and dense that it eventually initiated [[nuclear fusion]] in its [[solar core|core]]. It is thought that almost all stars [[Star formation|form by this process]].

The Sun is roughly middle-aged; it has not changed dramatically for more than four billion<ref group=lower-alpha name=short /> years, and will remain fairly stable for more than another five billion years. After [[hydrogen fusion]] in its core has diminished to the point at which it is no longer in [[hydrostatic equilibrium]], the core of the Sun will experience a marked increase in density and temperature while its outer layers expand to eventually become a [[red giant]]. It is calculated that the Sun will become sufficiently large to engulf the current orbits of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] and [[Venus]], and render [[Earth]] uninhabitable.

The enormous effect of the Sun on Earth has been recognized since [[prehistoric times]], and the Sun has been [[The Sun in culture|regarded by some cultures]] as a [[solar deity|deity]]. The [[Synodic day|synodic]] rotation of Earth and its orbit around the Sun are the basis of the [[solar calendar]], which is the predominant [[calendar]] in use today.

==Name and etymology==
The English proper name ''Sun'' developed from [[Old English]] ''sunne'' and may be related to ''south''. Cognates to English ''sun'' appear in other [[Germanic languages]], including [[Old Frisian]] ''sunne'', ''sonne'', [[Old Saxon]] ''sunna'', [[Middle Dutch]] ''sonne'', modern [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''zon'', [[Old High German]] ''sunna'', modern German ''Sonne'', [[Old Norse]] ''sunna'', and [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''sunnō''. All Germanic terms for the Sun stem from [[Proto-Germanic]] *''sunnōn''.<ref name=BARNHART776>
{{cite book
|last=Barnhart |first=R. K.
|date=1995
|title=The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology
|page=776
|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]
|isbn=0-06-270084-7
}}</ref><ref name=MALLORY129>
{{cite book
|last=Mallory |first=J. P.
|date=1989
|title=In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth
|page=129
|publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]]
|isbn=0-500-27616-1
}}</ref>

The English weekday name ''Sunday'' stems from Old English (''Sunnandæg''; "Sun's day", from before 700) and is ultimately a result of a [[Interpretatio germanica|Germanic interpretation]] of Latin ''dies solis'', itself a translation of the Greek ἡμέρα ἡλίου (''hēméra hēlíou'').<ref name="BARNHART778">
{{cite book
|last=Barnhart |first=R. K.
|date=1995
|title=The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology
|page=778
|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]
|isbn=0-06-270084-7
}}</ref> The Latin name for the Sun, ''Sol'', is not common in general English language use; the adjectival form is the related word ''solar''.<ref>
{{cite book
|last1=Little |first1=W
|last2=Fowler |first2=H. W.
|last3=Coulson |first3=J.
|chapter=Sol
|title=Oxford Universal Dictionary on Historical Principles
|edition=3rd
|asin=B000QS3QVQ
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|title=Sol
|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Sol
|publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]]
|accessdate=19 July 2009
}}</ref> The term ''sol'' is also used by planetary astronomers to refer to the duration of a [[solar day]] on another planet, such as [[Mars]].<ref>
{{cite web
|date=15 November 2006
|title=Opportunity's View, Sol 959 (Vertical)
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mer/images/pia01892.html
|publisher=[[NASA]]
|accessdate=1 August 2007
}}</ref> A mean [[Earth]] solar day is approximately 24 hours, whereas a mean Martian 'sol' is 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 35.244 seconds.<ref>
{{cite web
|last=Allison |first=M.
|last2=Schmunk |first2=R.
|date=8 August 2012
|title=Technical Notes on Mars Solar Time as Adopted by the Mars24 Sunclock
|url=http://www.giss.nasa.gov/tools/mars24/help/notes.html
|publisher=[[NASA]]/[[GISS]]
|accessdate=16 September 2012
}}</ref>

===Religious aspects===

{{main article |Solar deity}}
Solar deities and Sun worship can be found throughout most of recorded history in various forms, including the Egyptian [[Ra]], the Hindu [[Surya]], the Japanese [[Amaterasu]], the Germanic [[Sól (sun)|Sól]], and the Aztec [[Tonatiuh]], among others.

From at least the [[4th Dynasty]] of [[Ancient Egypt]], the Sun was worshipped as the [[Ra|god Ra]], portrayed as a falcon-headed divinity surmounted by the solar disk, and surrounded by a serpent. In the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Empire]] period, the Sun became identified with the [[dung beetle]], whose spherical ball of dung was identified with the Sun. In the form of the Sun disc [[Aten]], the Sun had a brief resurgence during the [[Amarna Period]] when it again became the preeminent, if not only, divinity for the [[Pharaoh]] [[Akhenaton]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Teeter|first1=Emily|title=Religion and Ritual in Ancient Egypt|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=9780521848558}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Frankfort|first1=Henri|title=Ancient Egyptian Religion: an Interpretation|date=2011|publisher=Dover Publications|isbn=0486411389}}</ref>

The Sun is viewed as a goddess in [[Germanic paganism]], [[Sól (sun)|Sól/Sunna]].<ref name=MALLORY129/> Scholars theorize that the Sun, as a Germanic goddess, may represent an extension of an earlier [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Proto-Indo-European]] Sun deity because of [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European linguistic]] connections between Old Norse ''Sól'', [[Sanskrit]] ''[[Surya]]'', [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] ''[[Sulis]]'', [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] ''[[Saulė]]'', and [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] ''Solntse''.<ref name=MALLORY129/>

In ancient Roman culture, [[Sunday]] was the day of the Sun god. It was adopted as the [[Sabbath]] day by Christians who did not have a Jewish background. The symbol of light was a pagan device adopted by Christians, and perhaps the most important one that did not come from Jewish traditions. In paganism, the Sun was a source of life, giving warmth and illumination to mankind. It was the center of a popular cult among Romans, who would stand at dawn to catch the first rays of sunshine as they prayed. The celebration of the [[winter solstice]] (which influenced Christmas) was part of the Roman cult of the unconquered Sun ([[Sol Invictus]]). Christian churches were built with an orientation so that the congregation faced toward the sunrise in the East.<ref>{{cite book|author=Owen Chadwick|title=A History of Christianity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qugouOh3KjMC&pg=PA22|year=1998|publisher=St. Martin's Press|page=22}}</ref>

==Characteristics==

The Sun is a [[G-type main-sequence star]] that comprises about 99.86% of the mass of the Solar System. The Sun has an [[absolute magnitude]] of +4.83, estimated to be brighter than about 85% of the stars in the [[Milky Way]], most of which are [[red dwarf]]s.<ref>{{Cite news
|last=Than |first=K.
|date=2006
|title=Astronomers Had it Wrong: Most Stars are Single
|publisher=[[Space.com]]
|url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060130_mm_single_stars.html
|accessdate=1 August 2007
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
|last=Lada |first=C. J.
|date=2006
|title=Stellar multiplicity and the initial mass function: Most stars are single
|journal=[[Astrophysical Journal Letters]]
|volume=640 |issue=1 |pages=L63–L66
|arxiv=astro-ph/0601375
|bibcode=2006ApJ...640L..63L
|doi=10.1086/503158
|ref=harv
}}</ref>
The Sun is a [[Population I stars|Population I]], or heavy-element-rich,{{efn|name=heavy elements}} star.<ref name=zeilik>
{{Cite book
|last=Zeilik |first=M. A.
|last2=Gregory |first2=S. A.
|date=1998
|title=Introductory Astronomy & Astrophysics
|edition=4th |page=322
|publisher=[[Saunders College Publishing]]
|isbn=0-03-006228-4
}}</ref> The formation of the Sun may have been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby [[supernova]]e.<ref name="Falk">
{{Cite journal
|last=Falk |first=S. W.
|last2=Lattmer |first2=J. M.
|last3=Margolis |first3=S. H.
|date=1977
|title=Are supernovae sources of presolar grains?
|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]
|volume=270 |issue=5639 |pages=700–701
|bibcode=1977Natur.270..700F
|doi=10.1038/270700a0
|ref=harv
}}</ref> This is suggested by a high [[Abundance of the chemical elements|abundance]] of heavy elements in the Solar System, such as [[gold]] and [[uranium]], relative to the abundances of these elements in so-called [[Population II]], heavy-element-poor, stars. The heavy elements could most plausibly have been produced by [[endothermic]] nuclear reactions during a supernova, or by [[Nuclear transmutation|transmutation]] through [[neutron absorption]] within a massive second-generation star.<ref name=zeilik />

The Sun is by far the brightest object in the Earth's sky, with an [[apparent magnitude]] of −26.74.<ref>{{Cite journal
|last=Burton |first=W. B.
|date=1986
|title=Stellar parameters
|journal=[[Space Science Reviews]]
|volume=43|issue=3–4|pages=244–250
|doi=10.1007/BF00190626
|ref=harv
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
|last=Bessell |first=M. S.
|last2=Castelli |first2=F.
|last3=Plez |first3=B.
|date=1998
|title=Model atmospheres broad-band colors, bolometric corrections and temperature calibrations for O–M stars
|journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics]]
|volume=333|pages=231–250
|bibcode=1998A&A...333..231B
|ref=harv
}}</ref> This is about 13 billion times brighter than the next brightest star, [[Sirius]], which has an apparent magnitude of −1.46. The mean distance of the Sun's center to Earth's center is approximately {{convert|1|AU|km mi|lk=in|disp=x| (about |)}}, though the distance varies as Earth moves from [[perihelion]] in January to [[aphelion]] in July.<ref name="USNO">{{cite web
|date=31 January 2008
|title=Equinoxes, Solstices, Perihelion, and Aphelion, 2000–2020
|url=http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/EarthSeasons.php
|publisher=[[US Naval Observatory]]
|accessdate=17 July 2009
}}</ref> At this average distance, light travels from the Sun's horizon to Earth's horizon in about 8 minutes and 19 seconds, while light from the closest points of the Sun and Earth takes about two seconds less. The energy of this [[sunlight]] supports almost all life<ref group="lower-alpha">[[Hydrothermal vent communities]] live so deep under the sea that they have no access to sunlight. Bacteria instead use sulfur compounds as an energy source, via [[chemosynthesis]].</ref> on Earth by [[photosynthesis]],<ref name="Simon2001">{{Cite book
|last=Simon |first=A.
|title=The Real Science Behind the X-Files : Microbes, meteorites, and mutants
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=1gXImRmz7u8C&pg=PA26&dq=bacteria+that+live+with+out+the+sun
|pages=25–27
|publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]
|date=2001
|isbn=0-684-85618-2
}}</ref> and drives [[Earth's climate]] and weather.

The Sun does not have a definite boundary, but its density decreases exponentially with increasing height above the [[photosphere]].<ref name="Beer et al, 2012-41">
{{Cite book
|last=Beer |first=J.
|last2=McCracken |first2=K.
|last3=von Steiger |first3=R.
|date=2012
|title=Cosmogenic Radionuclides: Theory and Applications in the Terrestrial and Space Environments
|page=41
|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]
|isbn=978-3-642-14651-0
}}</ref> For the purpose of measurement, however, the Sun's radius is considered to be the distance from its center to the edge of the photosphere, the apparent visible surface of the Sun.<ref name=Phillips1995-73>
{{Cite book
|last=Phillips |first=K. J. H.
|date=1995
|title=Guide to the Sun
|page=73
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|isbn=978-0-521-39788-9
}}</ref> By this measure, the Sun is a near-perfect sphere with an [[oblateness]] estimated at about 9 millionths,<ref name="Godier">{{Cite journal
|last=Godier |first=S.
|last2=Rozelot |first2=J.-P.
|date=2000
|title=The solar oblateness and its relationship with the structure of the tachocline and of the Sun's subsurface
|url=http://aa.springer.de/papers/0355001/2300365.pdf
|journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics]]
|volume=355 |pages=365–374
|bibcode=2000A&A...355..365G
|ref=harv
}}</ref> which means that its polar diameter differs from its equatorial diameter by only {{convert|10|km|mi}}.<ref name="perfect sphere">{{cite web
|last=Jones |first=G.
|date=16 August 2012
|title=Sun is the most perfect sphere ever observed in nature
|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/aug/16/sun-perfect-sphere-nature
|work=[[The Guardian]]
|accessdate=19 August 2013
}}</ref>
The tidal effect of the planets is weak and does not significantly affect the shape of the Sun.<ref name="Schutz2003">{{Cite book
|last=Schutz|first=B. F.
|date=2003
|title=Gravity from the ground up
|pages=98–99
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|isbn=978-0-521-45506-0
}}</ref> The Sun rotates faster at its [[equator]] than at its [[poles of astronomical bodies|poles]]. This [[Solar rotation|differential rotation]] is caused by [[convection|convective motion]] due to heat transport and the [[Coriolis effect|Coriolis force]] due to the Sun's rotation. In a frame of reference defined by the stars, the rotational period is approximately 25.6 days at the equator and 33.5 days at the poles. Viewed from Earth as it orbits the Sun, the ''apparent rotational period'' of the Sun at its equator is about 28 days.<ref name="Phillips1995-78">{{Cite book
|last=Phillips|first=K. J. H.
|date=1995
|title=Guide to the Sun
|pages=78–79
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|isbn=978-0-521-39788-9
}}</ref>

==Sunlight==
{{Main article|Sunlight}}

The [[solar constant]] is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately {{val|1368|u=W/m2|fmt=commas}} (watts per square meter) at a distance of one [[astronomical unit]] (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth).<ref name=TSI>{{cite web|title=Construction of a Composite Total Solar Irradiance (TSI) Time Series from 1978 to present |url=http://www.pmodwrc.ch/pmod.php?topic=tsi/composite/SolarConstant|accessdate = 5 October 2005}}</ref> Sunlight on the surface of Earth is [[attenuation (electromagnetic radiation)|attenuated]] by Earth's atmosphere, so that less power arrives at the surface (closer to {{val|1000|u=W/m2|fmt=commas}}) in clear conditions when the Sun is near the [[zenith]].<ref name=El-Sharkawi2005>{{Cite book|last=El-Sharkawi|first=Mohamed A.|title=Electric energy|date=2005|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-8493-3078-0|pages=87–88}}</ref> Sunlight at the top of Earth's atmosphere is composed (by total energy) of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light.<ref name="Solar radiation">[http://curry.eas.gatech.edu/Courses/6140/ency/Chapter3/Ency_Atmos/Radiation_Solar.pdf Solar radiation]</ref> The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70% of solar ultraviolet, especially at the shorter wavelengths.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/spectra/am1.5/ |title=Reference Solar Spectral Irradiance: Air Mass 1.5|accessdate=12 November 2009}}</ref> Solar [[ultraviolet radiation]] ionizes Earth's dayside upper atmosphere, creating the electrically conducting [[ionosphere]].<ref name=Phillips1995>
{{Cite book
|last=Phillips |first=K. J. H.
|date=1995
|title=Guide to the Sun
|pages=14–15, 34–38
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|isbn=978-0-521-39788-9
}}</ref>

The Sun's color is white, with a [[CIE 1931 color space|CIE]] color-space index near (0.3, 0.3), when viewed from space or when the Sun is high in the sky. When measuring all the photons emitted, the Sun is actually emitting more photons in the green portion of the spectrum than any other.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.universetoday.com/18689/color-of-the-sun/|title=What Color is the Sun?|publisher=Universe Today|access-date=23 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://solar-center.stanford.edu/SID/activities/GreenSun.html|title=What Color is the Sun?|publisher=[[Stanford University|Stanford]] Solar Center|access-date=23 May 2016}}</ref> When the Sun is low in the sky, [[Diffuse sky radiation|atmospheric scattering]] renders the Sun yellow, red, orange, or magenta. Despite its typical whiteness, most people mentally picture the Sun as yellow; the reasons for this are the subject of debate.<ref name="yellow sun paradox">
{{Cite journal
|last=Wilk |first=S. R.
|date=2009
|title=The Yellow Sun Paradox
|url=http://www.osa-opn.org/Content/ViewFile.aspx?id=11147
|journal=[[Optics & Photonics News]]
|pages=12–13
|ref=harv
}}</ref>
The Sun is a [[G-type main-sequence star|G2V]] star, with ''G2'' indicating its [[effective temperature|surface temperature]] of approximately 5,778 K (5,505 °C, 9,941 °F), and ''V'' that it, like most stars, is a [[main sequence|main-sequence]] star.<ref name=Phillips1995-47>
{{Cite book
|last=Phillips|first=K. J. H.
|date=1995
|title=Guide to the Sun
|pages=47–53
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|isbn=978-0-521-39788-9
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Dr Karl's Great Moments In Science: Lazy Sun is less energetic than compost |url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2012/04/17/3478276.htm|accessdate=25 February 2014|newspaper=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=17 April 2012|author=Karl S. Kruszelnicki|quote="Every second, the Sun burns 620 million tonnes of hydrogen..."}}</ref> The average [[luminance]] of the Sun is about 1.88 [[giga]] [[candela per square metre]], but as viewed through Earth's atmosphere, this is lowered to about 1.44 Gcd/m2.{{efn|1=1.88 Gcd/m2 is calculated from the solar illuminance of {{val|128000|u=lux}} (see [[sunlight]]) times the square of the distance to the center of the Sun, divided by the cross sectional area of the Sun. 1.44 Gcd/m2 is calculated using {{val|98000|u=lux}}.}} However, the luminance is not constant across the disk of the Sun ([[limb darkening]]).

==Composition==

{{see also|Molecules in stars}}

The Sun is composed primarily of the [[chemical element]]s [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]]; they account for 74.9% and 23.8% of the mass of the Sun in the photosphere, respectively.<ref name=lodders>
{{cite journal| doi = 10.1086/375492| last = Lodders| first = Katharina| date = July 10, 2003| title = Solar System Abundances and Condensation Temperatures of the Elements| journal = The Astrophysical Journal| publisher = The American Astronomical Society| volume = 591| issue = 2| pages = 1220–1247| url = http://weft.astro.washington.edu/courses/astro557/LODDERS.pdf| format = PDF| bibcode = 2003ApJ...591.1220L| ref = harv}} {{Cite journal
|last=Lodders |first=K.
|title=Abundances and Condensation Temperatures of the Elements
|url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/metsoc2003/pdf/5272.pdf
|format=PDF|journal=[[Meteoritics & Planetary Science]]
|volume=38 |issue=suppl. |page=5272
|date=2003
|bibcode=2003M&PSA..38.5272L
|ref=harv
}}</ref> All heavier elements, called ''[[metallicity|metals]]'' in astronomy, account for less than 2% of the mass, with oxygen (roughly 1% of the Sun's mass), carbon (0.3%), neon (0.2%), and iron (0.2%) being the most abundant.<ref name=hkt2004>
{{Cite book
|last=Hansen |first=C.J. |last2=Kawaler |first2=S.A. |last3=Trimble |first3=V.
|title=Stellar Interiors: Physical Principles, Structure, and Evolution
|pages=19–20
|edition=2nd
|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]
|date=2004
|isbn=0-387-20089-4
}}</ref>

The Sun inherited its chemical composition from the [[interstellar medium]] out of which it formed. The hydrogen and helium in the Sun were produced by [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]], and the heavier elements were produced by [[stellar nucleosynthesis]] in generations of stars that completed their [[stellar evolution]] and returned their material to the interstellar medium before the formation of the Sun.<ref name=hkt2004_78>{{Cite book
|last=Hansen |first=C.J. |last2=Kawaler |first2=S.A. |last3=Trimble |first3=V.
|title=Stellar Interiors: Physical Principles, Structure, and Evolution
|pages=77–78
|edition=2nd
|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]
|date=2004
|isbn=0-387-20089-4
}}</ref> The chemical composition of the photosphere is normally considered representative of the composition of the primordial Solar System.<ref name="aller1968">
{{Cite journal
|last=Aller |first=L.H.
|title=The chemical composition of the Sun and the solar system
|journal=[[Proceedings of the Astronomical Society of Australia]]
|volume=1 |page=133
|date=1968
|bibcode=1968PASAu...1..133A
|ref=harv
}}</ref> However, since the Sun formed, some of the helium and heavy elements have gravitationally settled from the photosphere. Therefore, in today's photosphere the helium fraction is reduced, and the [[metallicity]] is only 84% of what it was in the [[Protostar|protostellar]] phase (before nuclear fusion in the core started). The protostellar Sun's composition is believed to have been 71.1% hydrogen, 27.4% helium, and 1.5% heavier elements.<ref name=lodders/>

Today, nuclear fusion in the Sun's core has modified the composition by converting hydrogen into helium, so the innermost portion of the Sun is now roughly 60% helium, with the abundance of heavier elements unchanged. Because heat is transferred from the Sun's core by radiation rather than by convection (see [[#Radiative zone|Radiative zone]] below), none of the fusion products from the core have risen to the photosphere.<ref name=hkt2004_9.2.3>{{Cite book
|last=Hansen |first=C.J. |last2=Kawaler |first2=S.A. |last3=Trimble |first3=V.
|title=Stellar Interiors: Physical Principles, Structure, and Evolution
|pages=§ 9.2.3 |nopp=yes
|edition=2nd
|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]
|date=2004
|isbn=0-387-20089-4
}}</ref>

The reactive core zone of "hydrogen burning", where hydrogen is converted into helium, is starting to surround an inner core of "helium ash". This development will continue and will eventually cause the Sun to leave the [[main sequence]], to become a [[red giant]].<ref>Iben, I Jnr (1965) "Stellar Evolution. II. The Evolution of a 3 M_{sun} Star from the Main Sequence Through Core Helium Burning". (Astrophysical Journal, vol. 142, p.1447)</ref>

The solar heavy-element abundances described above are typically measured both using [[astronomical spectroscopy|spectroscopy]] of the Sun's photosphere and by measuring abundances in [[meteorites]] that have never been heated to melting temperatures. These meteorites are thought to retain the composition of the protostellar Sun and are thus not affected by settling of heavy elements. The two methods generally agree well.<ref name=basu2008 />

===Singly ionized iron-group elements===
In the 1970s, much research focused on the abundances of [[iron group|iron-group]] elements in the Sun.<ref name="biemont1978">
{{Cite journal
|last=Biemont |first=E.
|date=1978
|title=Abundances of singly ionized elements of the iron group in the Sun
|journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]
|volume=184 |pages=683–694
|bibcode=1978MNRAS.184..683B
|ref=harv
|doi=10.1093/mnras/184.4.683
}}</ref><ref>Ross and Aller 1976, Withbroe 1976, Hauge and Engvold 1977, cited in Biemont 1978.</ref> Although significant research was done, until 1978 it was difficult to determine the abundances of some iron-group elements (e.g. [[cobalt]] and [[manganese]]) via [[spectrography]] because of their [[hyperfine structure]]s.<ref name="biemont1978"/>

The first largely complete set of [[oscillator strength]]s of singly ionized iron-group elements were made available in the 1960s,<ref>Corliss and Bozman (1962 cited in Biemont 1978) and Warner (1967 cited in Biemont 1978)</ref> and these were subsequently improved.<ref>Smith (1976 cited in Biemont 1978)</ref> In 1978, the abundances of singly ionized elements of the iron group were derived.<ref name="biemont1978"/>

===Isotopic composition===
Various authors have considered the existence of a gradient in the [[isotope|isotopic]] compositions of solar and planetary [[noble gas]]es,<ref>Signer and Suess 1963; Manuel 1967; Marti 1969; Kuroda and Manuel 1970; Srinivasan and Manuel 1971, all cited in Manuel and Hwaung 1983</ref> e.g. correlations between isotopic compositions of [[neon]] and [[xenon]] in the Sun and on the planets.<ref>Kuroda and Manuel 1970 cited in Manuel and Hwaung 1983:7</ref>

Prior to 1983, it was thought that the whole Sun has the same composition as the solar atmosphere.<ref name="manuel1983">
{{Cite journal
|last=Manuel |first=O. K.
|last2=Hwaung |first2=G.
|date=1983
|title=Solar abundances of the elements
|journal=[[Meteoritics (journal)|Meteoritics]]
|volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=209–222
|bibcode=1983Metic..18..209M
|doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.1983.tb00822.x
|ref=harv
}}</ref> In 1983, it was claimed that it was [[fractionation]] in the Sun itself that caused the isotopic-composition relationship between the planetary and solar-wind-implanted noble gases.<ref name="manuel1983"/>

==Structure and energy production==

===Core===
{{Main article|Solar core}}

[[File:Sun poster.svg|thumb|x250px|The structure of the Sun]]

The [[Solar core|core]] of the Sun extends from the center to about 20–25% of the solar radius.<ref name="Garcia2007">
{{Cite journal
|last=García |first=R.
|date=2007
|title=Tracking solar gravity modes: the dynamics of the solar core
|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]
|volume=316 |issue=5831 |pages=1591–1593
|bibcode=2007Sci...316.1591G
|doi=10.1126/science.1140598
|pmid=17478682
|ref=harv
|display-authors=etal}}</ref> It has a density of up to {{val|150|u=g|up=cm3}}<ref name="Basu">
{{Cite journal
|last1=Basu |first1=S.
|display-authors=etal
|date=2009
|title=Fresh insights on the structure of the solar core
|journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]]
|volume=699 |issue=2 |pages=1403–1417
|arxiv=0905.0651
|bibcode=2009ApJ...699.1403B
|doi=10.1088/0004-637X/699/2/1403
}}</ref><ref name=NASA1>
{{cite web
|date=18 January 2007
|title=NASA/Marshall Solar Physics
|url=http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/interior.shtml
|publisher=[[Marshall Space Flight Center]]
|accessdate=11 July 2009
}}</ref> (about 150 times the density of water) and a temperature of close to 15.7 million [[kelvin]]s (K).<ref name=NASA1/> By contrast, the Sun's surface temperature is approximately 5,800 K. Recent analysis of [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]] mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above.<ref name="Garcia2007"/> Through most of the Sun's life, energy has been produced by [[nuclear fusion]] in the core region through a series of steps called the [[Proton-proton chain reaction|p–p (proton–proton) chain]]; this process converts [[hydrogen]] into [[helium]].<ref>
{{Cite conference
|conference=XXIII Physics in Collisions Conference
|location=Zeuthen, Germany
|last=Broggini |first=C.
|date=2003
|title=Physics in Collision, Proceedings of the XXIII International Conference: Nuclear Processes at Solar Energy
|url=http://www.slac.stanford.edu/econf/C030626
|page=21
|arxiv=astro-ph/0308537
|bibcode=2003phco.conf...21B
|ref=harv
}}</ref> Only 0.8% of the energy generated in the Sun comes from the [[CNO cycle]], though this proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older.<ref name=jpcs271_1_012031>
{{Cite journal
|last1=Goupil |first1=M. J.
|last2=Lebreton |first2=Y.
|last3=Marques |first3=J. P.
|last4=Samadi |first4=R.
|last5=Baudin |first5=F.
|date=2011
|title=Open issues in probing interiors of solar-like oscillating main sequence stars 1. From the Sun to nearly suns
|journal=[[Journal of Physics: Conference Series]]
|volume=271 |issue=1 |page=012031
|arxiv=1102.0247
|bibcode=2011JPhCS.271a2031G
|doi=10.1088/1742-6596/271/1/012031
}}</ref>

The core is the only region in the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of [[thermal energy]] through fusion; 99% of the power is generated within 24% of the Sun's radius, and by 30% of the radius, fusion has stopped nearly entirely. The remainder of the Sun is heated by this energy as it is transferred outwards through many successive layers, finally to the solar photosphere where it escapes into space as sunlight or the [[kinetic energy]] of particles.<ref name=Phillips1995-47/><ref name=Zirker2002-15>
{{Cite book
|last=Zirker|first=J. B.
|date=2002
|title=Journey from the Center of the Sun
|pages=15–34
|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]
|isbn=978-0-691-05781-1
}}</ref>

The [[proton–proton chain]] occurs around {{val|9.2|e=37}} times each second in the core, converting about 3.7{{e|38}} protons into [[alpha particle]]s (helium nuclei) every second (out of a total of ~8.9{{e|56}} free protons in the Sun), or about 6.2{{e|11}} kg/s.<ref name=Phillips1995-47/> Fusing four free [[proton]]s (hydrogen nuclei) into a single [[alpha particle]] (helium nucleus) releases around 0.7% of the fused mass as energy,<ref>
{{cite book
|last=Shu |first=F. H.
|date=1982
|title=The Physical Universe: An Introduction to Astronomy
|page=102
|publisher=[[University Science Books]]
|isbn=0-935702-05-9
}}</ref> so the Sun releases energy at the mass–energy conversion rate of 4.26 million metric tons per second (which requires 600 metric megatons of hydrogen <ref>{{cite web |title=Ask Us: Sun |url=https://helios.gsfc.nasa.gov/qa_sun.html |work=Cosmicopia |publisher=NASA |date=2012 |accessdate=13 July 2017}}</ref>), for 384.6 [[Yotta-|yottawatts]] ({{val|3.846|e=26|u=W}}),<ref name=nssdc /> or 9.192{{e|10}} [[TNT equivalent|megatons]] of [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]] per second. Theoretical models of the Sun's interior indicate a power density of approximately 276.5 W/m3,<ref>
{{cite web
|last=Cohen |first=H.
|date=9 November 1998
|title=Table of temperatures, power densities, luminosities by radius in the Sun
|url=http://fusedweb.llnl.gov/CPEP/Chart_Pages/5.Plasmas/Sunlayers.html
|publisher=Contemporary Physics Education Project
|accessdate=30 August 2011
|archiveurl=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011129122524/http%3A//fusedweb%2Ellnl%2Egov/cpep/chart_pages/5%2Eplasmas/sunlayers%2Ehtml |archivedate= 29 November 2001 }}</ref> a value that more nearly approximates that of reptile metabolism or a compost pile<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2012/04/17/3478276.htm|title=Lazy Sun is less energetic than compost|date=17 April 2012|publisher=}}</ref> than of a thermonuclear bomb.{{efn|name=power production density}}

The fusion rate in the core is in a self-correcting equilibrium: a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and [[thermal expansion|expand]] slightly against the weight of the outer layers, reducing the density and hence the fusion rate and correcting the [[Perturbation (astronomy)|perturbation]]; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly, increasing the density and increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present rate.<ref>
{{Cite journal
|last1=Haubold |first1=H. J.
|last2=Mathai|first2=A. M.
|date=1994
|title=Solar Nuclear Energy Generation & The Chlorine Solar Neutrino Experiment
|volume=320 |page=102
|journal=[[AIP Conference Proceedings]]
|arxiv=astro-ph/9405040
|bibcode=1995AIPC..320..102H
|doi=10.1063/1.47009
|ref=harv
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|last=Myers|first=S. T.
|date=18 February 1999
|title=Lecture 11 – Stellar Structure I: Hydrostatic Equilibrium
|work=Introduction to Astrophysics II
|accessdate=15 July 2009
|url=http://www.aoc.nrao.edu/~smyers/courses/astro12/L11.html
}}</ref>

===Radiative zone===
{{main article|Radiative zone}}
From the core out to about 0.7 solar radii, [[thermal radiation]] is the primary means of energy transfer.<ref name="autogenerated1">
{{cite web
|url=http://mynasa.nasa.gov/worldbook/sun_worldbook.html
|publisher=NASA|title=Sun
|work=World Book at NASA
|accessdate=10 October 2012
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130510142009/http://mynasa.nasa.gov/worldbook/sun_worldbook.html |archivedate=2013-05-10}}</ref> The temperature drops from approximately 7 million to 2 million kelvins with increasing distance from the core.<ref name=NASA1/> This [[temperature gradient]] is less than the value of the [[adiabatic lapse rate]] and hence cannot drive convection, which explains why the transfer of energy through this zone is by [[radiation]] instead of thermal [[convection]].<ref name=NASA1/> [[Ions]] of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]] emit [[photons]], which travel only a brief distance before being reabsorbed by other ions.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> The density drops a hundredfold (from 20 g/cm3 to 0.2 g/cm3) from 0.25 solar radii to the 0.7 radii, the top of the radiative zone.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

===Tachocline===
{{main article|Tachocline}}

The radiative zone and the convective zone are separated by a transition layer, the [[tachocline]]. This is a region where the sharp regime change between the uniform rotation of the radiative zone and the differential rotation of the convection zone results in a large [[shear (fluid)|shear]] between the two—a condition where successive horizontal layers slide past one another.<ref>
{{Cite book
|last=Tobias |first=S. M.
|date=2005
|chapter=The solar tachocline: Formation, stability and its role in the solar dynamo
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=PLNwoJ6qFoEC&pg=PA193
|pages=193–235
|editor=A. M. Soward
|display-editors=etal
|title=Fluid Dynamics and Dynamos in Astrophysics and Geophysics
|publisher=[[CRC Press]]
|isbn=978-0-8493-3355-2
}}</ref> Presently, it is hypothesized (see [[Solar dynamo]]) that a magnetic dynamo within this layer generates the Sun's [[magnetic field]].<ref name=NASA1/>

===Convective zone===
{{main article|Convection zone}}
The Sun's convection zone extends from 0.7 solar radii (200,000 km) to near the surface. In this layer, the solar plasma is not dense enough or hot enough to transfer the heat energy of the interior outward via radiation. Instead, the density of the plasma is low enough to allow convective currents to develop and move the Sun's energy outward towards its surface. Material heated at the tachocline picks up heat and expands, thereby reducing its density and allowing it to rise. As a result, an orderly motion of the mass develops into [[thermal|thermal cells]] that carry the majority of the heat outward to the Sun's photosphere above. Once the material diffusively and radiatively cools just beneath the photospheric surface, its density increases, and it sinks to the base of the convection zone, where it again picks up heat from the top of the radiative zone and the convective cycle continues. At the photosphere, the temperature has dropped to 5,700 K and the density to only 0.2 g/m3 (about 1/6,000 the density of air at sea level).<ref name=NASA1/>

The thermal columns of the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun giving it a granular appearance called the [[granule (solar physics)|solar granulation]] at the smallest scale and [[supergranulation]] at larger scales. Turbulent convection in this outer part of the solar interior sustains "small-scale" dynamo action over the near-surface volume of the Sun.<ref name=NASA1/> The Sun's thermal columns are [[Bénard cells]] and take the shape of hexagonal prisms.<ref>
{{Cite book
|last=Mullan |first=D. J
|date=2000
|chapter=Solar Physics: From the Deep Interior to the Hot Corona
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=rk5fxs55_OkC&pg=PA22
|page=22
|editor=Page, D.
|editor2=Hirsch, J.G.
|title=From the Sun to the Great Attractor
|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]
|isbn=978-3-540-41064-5
}}</ref>

===Photosphere===
[[File:EffectiveTemperature 300dpi e.png|thumb|The [[effective temperature]], or [[black body]] temperature, of the Sun (5,777 K) is the temperature a black body of the same size must have to yield the same total emissive power.]]
{{Main article|Photosphere}}
The visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the layer below which the Sun becomes [[opacity (optics)|opaque]] to visible light.<ref name=Abhyankar1977/> Above the photosphere visible sunlight is free to propagate into space, and almost all of its energy escapes the Sun entirely. The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of [[Hydrogen anion|H− ions]], which absorb visible light easily.<ref name=Abhyankar1977/> Conversely, the visible light we see is produced as electrons react with [[hydrogen]] atoms to produce H− ions.<ref name="Gibson">
{{Cite book
|last=Gibson |first=E. G.
|date=1973
|title=The Quiet Sun
|publisher=[[NASA]]
|asin=B0006C7RS0
}}</ref><ref name="Shu">
{{Cite book
|last=Shu |first=F. H.
|title=The Physics of Astrophysics
|volume=1
|publisher=[[University Science Books]]
|date=1991
|isbn=0-935702-64-4
}}</ref>
The photosphere is tens to hundreds of kilometers thick, and is slightly less opaque than air on Earth. Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part, an image of the Sun appears brighter in the center than on the edge or ''limb'' of the solar disk, in a phenomenon known as [[limb darkening]].<ref name=Abhyankar1977/> The spectrum of sunlight has approximately the spectrum of a [[black-body]] radiating at about 6,000 [[kelvin|K]], interspersed with atomic [[absorption line]]s from the tenuous layers above the photosphere. The photosphere has a particle density of ~1023 m−3 (about 0.37% of the particle number per volume of [[Earth's atmosphere]] at sea level). The photosphere is not fully ionized—the extent of ionization is about 3%, leaving almost all of the hydrogen in atomic form.<ref>
{{cite journal
|last1=Rast|first1=M.
|last2=Nordlund |first2=Å.
|last3=Stein |first3=R.
|last4=Toomre |first4=J.
|date=1993
|title=Ionization Effects in Three-Dimensional Solar Granulation Simulations
|journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal Letters]]
|volume=408 |issue=1 |page=L53–L56
|bibcode=1993ApJ...408L..53R
|doi=10.1086/186829
}}</ref>

During early studies of the [[optical spectrum]] of the photosphere, some absorption lines were found that did not correspond to any [[chemical element]]s then known on Earth. In 1868, [[Norman Lockyer]] hypothesized that these absorption lines were caused by a new element that he dubbed ''[[helium]]'', after the Greek Sun god [[Helios]]. Twenty-five years later, helium was isolated on Earth.<ref name="Lockyer">
{{cite web
|last=Parnel |first=C.
|title=Discovery of Helium
|url=http://www-solar.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~clare/Lockyer/helium.html
|publisher=[[University of St Andrews]]
|accessdate=22 March 2006
}}</ref>

===Atmosphere===
{{See also|Corona|Coronal loop}}
[[File:Solar eclipse 1999 4 NR.jpg|thumb|right|During a total [[solar eclipse]], the solar [[corona]] can be seen with the naked eye, during the brief period of totality.]]

During a total [[solar eclipse]], when the disk of the Sun is covered by that of the Moon, parts of the Sun's surrounding atmosphere can be seen. It is composed of four distinct parts: the [[chromosphere]], the [[solar transition region|transition region]], the [[corona]] and the [[heliosphere]].

The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region extending to about {{val|500|u=km}} above the photosphere, and has a temperature of about {{val|4100|ul=K|fmt=commas}}.<ref name=Abhyankar1977>
{{Cite journal
|last=Abhyankar |first=K. D.
|date=1977
|title=A Survey of the Solar Atmospheric Models
|url=http://prints.iiap.res.in/handle/2248/510
|journal=[[Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India]]
|volume=5 |pages=40–44
|bibcode=1977BASI....5...40A
|ref=harv
}}</ref> This part of the Sun is cool enough to allow the existence of simple molecules such as [[carbon monoxide]] and water, which can be detected via their absorption spectra.<ref name=Solanki1994>
{{Cite journal
|last=Solanki |first=S. K.
|last2=Livingston |first2=W.
|last3=Ayres |first3=T.
|date=1994
|title=New Light on the Heart of Darkness of the Solar Chromosphere
|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]
|pmid=17748350
|volume=263 |issue=5143 |pages=64–66
|bibcode=1994Sci...263...64S
|doi=10.1126/science.263.5143.64
|ref=harv
}}</ref>

The chromosphere, transition region, and corona are much hotter than the surface of the Sun.<ref name=Abhyankar1977/> The reason is not well understood, but evidence suggests that [[Alfvén wave]]s may have enough energy to heat the corona.<ref>
{{Cite journal
|last=De Pontieu |first=B.
|date=2007
|title=Chromospheric Alfvénic Waves Strong Enough to Power the Solar Wind
|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]
|volume=318 |issue=5856 |pages=1574–77
|bibcode=2007Sci...318.1574D
|doi=10.1126/science.1151747
|pmid=18063784
|ref=harv
|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

Above the temperature minimum layer is a layer about {{val|2000|u=km|fmt=commas}} thick, dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines.<ref name=Abhyankar1977/> It is called the ''chromosphere'' from the Greek root ''chroma'', meaning color, because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of total [[solar eclipse]]s.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> The temperature of the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude, ranging up to around {{val|20000|u=K|fmt=commas}} near the top.<ref name=Abhyankar1977/> In the upper part of the chromosphere [[helium]] becomes partially [[ionization|ionized]].<ref name=Hansteen1997>
{{Cite journal
|last=Hansteen |first=V. H.
|last2=Leer |first2=E.
|last3=Holzer |first3=T. E.
|date=1997
|title=The role of helium in the outer solar atmosphere
|journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]]
|volume=482 |issue=1 |pages=498–509
|bibcode=1997ApJ...482..498H
|doi=10.1086/304111
|ref=harv
}}</ref>

[[File:171879main LimbFlareJan12 lg.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Taken by [[Hinode]]'s Solar Optical Telescope on 12 January 2007, this image of the Sun reveals the filamentary nature of the plasma connecting regions of different magnetic polarity.]]

Above the chromosphere, in a thin (about 200 km) [[solar transition region|transition region]], the temperature rises rapidly from around 20,000 [[kelvin|K]] in the upper chromosphere to coronal temperatures closer to 1,000,000 [[kelvin|K]].<ref name=Erdelyi2007/> The temperature increase is facilitated by the full ionization of helium in the transition region, which significantly reduces radiative cooling of the plasma.<ref name=Hansteen1997/> The transition region does not occur at a well-defined altitude. Rather, it forms a kind of [[Halo (optical phenomenon)|nimbus]] around chromospheric features such as [[Spicule (solar physics)|spicules]] and [[Solar filament|filaments]], and is in constant, chaotic motion.<ref name="autogenerated1"/> The transition region is not easily visible from Earth's surface, but is readily observable from [[outer space|space]] by instruments sensitive to the [[extreme ultraviolet]] portion of the [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]].<ref name=Dwivedi2006>
{{Cite journal
|last=Dwivedi |first=B. N.
|date=2006
|title=Our ultraviolet Sun
|url=http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/sep102006/587.pdf
|journal=[[Current Science]]
|volume=91|issue=5|pages=587–595
|ref=harv
}}</ref>

The [[corona]] is the next layer of the Sun. The low corona, near the surface of the Sun, has a particle density around 1015 m−3 to 1016 m−3.<ref name=Hansteen1997/>{{efn|name=particle density}} The average temperature of the corona and solar wind is about 1,000,000–2,000,000 K; however, in the hottest regions it is 8,000,000–20,000,000 K.<ref name=Erdelyi2007/> Although no complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona, at least some of its heat is known to be from [[magnetic reconnection]].<ref name=Erdelyi2007/><ref name=Russell2001>
{{Cite book
|last=Russell |first=C. T.
|date=2001
|chapter=Solar wind and interplanetary magnetic filed: A tutorial
|url=http://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/personnel/russell/papers/SolWindTutorial.pdf
|pages=73–88
|editor=Song, Paul
|editor2=Singer, Howard J.
|editor3=Siscoe, George L.
|title=Space Weather (Geophysical Monograph)
|publisher=[[American Geophysical Union]]
|isbn=978-0-87590-984-4
}}</ref>
The corona is the extended atmosphere of the Sun, which has a volume much larger than the volume enclosed by the Sun's photosphere. A flow of plasma outward from the Sun into interplanetary space is the [[solar wind]].<ref name=Russell2001/>

The [[heliosphere]], the tenuous outermost atmosphere of the Sun, is filled with the solar wind plasma. This outermost layer of the Sun is defined to begin at the distance where the flow of the [[solar wind]] becomes ''superalfvénic''—that is, where the flow becomes faster than the speed of [[Alfvén wave]]s,<ref>
{{Cite book
|first=Emslie |last=A. G
|first2=Miller |last2=J. A.
|date=2003
|chapter=Particle Acceleration
|chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=W_oZYFplXX0C&pg=PA275
|editor=Dwivedi, B. N.
|title=Dynamic Sun
|page=275
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|isbn=978-0-521-81057-9
}}</ref> at approximately 20 solar radii (0.1 AU).
Turbulence and dynamic forces in the heliosphere cannot affect the shape of the solar corona within, because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves. The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere,<ref>{{cite web
|date=22 April 2003
|title=A Star with two North Poles
|url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/22apr_currentsheet.htm
|work=Science @ NASA
|publisher=[[NASA]]
|deadurl=yes
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718014855/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2003/22apr_currentsheet.htm
|archivedate=18 July 2009
|df=
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
|last=Riley
|first=P.
|last2=Linker
|first2=J. A.
|last3=Mikić
|first3=Z.
|date=2002
|title=Modeling the heliospheric current sheet: Solar cycle variations
|url=http://ulysses.jpl.nasa.gov/science/monthly_highlights/2002-July-2001JA000299.pdf
|journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]]
|volume=107
|issue=A7
|pages=SSH 8–1
|bibcode=2002JGRA..107.1136R
|doi=10.1029/2001JA000299
|id=CiteID 1136
|deadurl=yes
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090814052347/http://ulysses.jpl.nasa.gov/science/monthly_highlights/2002-July-2001JA000299.pdf
|archivedate=14 August 2009
|df=
}}</ref> forming the solar magnetic field into a [[Parker spiral|spiral]] shape,<ref name=Russell2001/> until it impacts the [[Heliopause (astronomy)|heliopause]] more than 50 [[Astronomical unit|AU]] from the Sun. In December 2004, the [[Voyager 1]] probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause.<ref>
{{cite press
|date=2005
|title=The Distortion of the Heliosphere: Our Interstellar Magnetic Compass
|url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=16394
|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]
|accessdate=22 March 2006
}}</ref> In late 2012 Voyager 1 recorded a marked increase in [[cosmic ray]] collisions and a sharp drop in lower energy particles from the solar wind, which suggested that the probe had passed through the heliopause and entered the [[interstellar medium]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JxauCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA163|title=The Cosmic Compendium: Interstellar Travel|pages=163–4|author=Anderson, Rupert W.|year=2015}}</ref>

===Photons and neutrinos===
{{see also|solar irradiance}}

High-energy [[gamma ray|gamma-ray]] photons initially released with fusion reactions in the core are almost immediately absorbed by the solar plasma of the radiative zone, usually after traveling only a few millimeters. Re-emission happens in a random direction and usually at a slightly lower energy. With this sequence of emissions and absorptions, it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun's surface. Estimates of the photon travel time range between 10,000 and 170,000 years.<ref name="NASA">
{{cite web
|date=2007
|title=Ancient sunlight
|url=http://sunearthday.nasa.gov/2007/locations/ttt_sunlight.php
|work=Technology Through Time
|publisher=[[NASA]]
|issue=50
|accessdate=24 June 2009
|ref=harv
}}</ref> In contrast, it takes only 2.3 seconds for the [[neutrino]]s, which account for about 2% of the total energy production of the Sun, to reach the surface. Because energy transport in the Sun is a process that involves photons in thermodynamic equilibrium with matter, the time scale of energy transport in the Sun is longer, on the order of 30,000,000 years. This is the time it would take the Sun to return to a stable state, if the rate of energy generation in its core were suddenly changed.<ref>
{{Cite journal
|last=Stix |first=M.
|date=2003
|title=On the time scale of energy transport in the sun
|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/l256u14247171u67/
|journal=[[Solar Physics (journal)|Solar Physics]]
|volume=212 |issue=1 |pages=3–6
|bibcode=2003SoPh..212....3S
|doi=10.1023/A:1022952621810
}}</ref>

Neutrinos are also released by the fusion reactions in the core, but, unlike photons, they rarely interact with matter, so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately. For many years measurements of the number of neutrinos produced in the Sun were [[Solar neutrino problem|lower than theories predicted]] by a factor of 3. This discrepancy was resolved in 2001 through the discovery of the effects of [[neutrino oscillation]]: the Sun emits the number of neutrinos predicted by the [[theory]], but neutrino detectors were missing {{frac|2|3}} of them because the neutrinos had changed [[flavor (particle physics)|flavor]] by the time they were detected.<ref name="Schlattl">
{{Cite journal
|last=Schlattl |first=H.
|date=2001
|title=Three-flavor oscillation solutions for the solar neutrino problem
|journal=[[Physical Review D]]
|volume=64 |issue=1 |page=013009
|arxiv=hep-ph/0102063
|bibcode=2001PhRvD..64a3009S
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.64.013009
|ref=harv
}}</ref>

==Magnetism and activity==

===Magnetic field===

{{See also|Stellar magnetic field|Sunspots|List of solar cycles|Solar phenomena}}

[[File:172197main NASA Flare Gband lg-withouttext.jpg|thumb|Visible light photograph of sunspot, 13 December 2006]]

{{Multiple image
| direction = vertical
| width = 350
| image1 = Sunspot butterfly diagram.svg
| image2 = Sunspot area variation.svg
| caption2 = [[Solar cycle#Sunspots|Butterfly diagram]] showing paired sunspot pattern. Graph is of sunspot area.
}}

[[File:Sun - August 1, 2010.jpg|thumb|In this false-color ultraviolet image, the Sun shows a C3-class solar flare (white area on upper left), a solar tsunami (wave-like structure, upper right) and multiple filaments of [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] following a magnetic field, rising from the stellar surface.]]
[[File:Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif|thumb|right|The [[heliospheric current sheet]] extends to the outer reaches of the Solar System, and results from the influence of the Sun's rotating magnetic field on the [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] in the [[interplanetary medium]].<ref>
{{cite web
|date=2006
|title=The Mean Magnetic Field of the Sun
|url=http://wso.stanford.edu/#MeanField
|publisher=[[Wilcox Solar Observatory]]
|accessdate=1 August 2007
}}</ref>]]

The Sun has a [[magnetic field]] that varies across the surface of the Sun. Its polar field is {{convert|1|-|2|G|sigfig=1|lk=on}}, whereas the field is typically {{convert|3000|G|sigfig=1}} in features on the Sun called [[sunspot]]s and {{convert|10|-|100|G|sigfig=1}} in [[solar prominence]]s.<ref name= nssdc />

The magnetic field also varies in time and location. The quasi-periodic 11-year [[solar cycle]] is the most prominent variation in which the number and size of sunspots waxes and wanes.<ref name="doi10.1146/annurev-astro-081913-040012" /><ref name="Zirker2002-119">{{Cite book
|last=Zirker |first=J. B.
|date=2002
|title=Journey from the Center of the Sun
|pages=119–120
|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]
|isbn=978-0-691-05781-1
}}</ref><ref name="Lang">{{Cite book
|last=Lang |first=Kenneth R.
|date=2008
|title=The Sun from Space
|page=75
|publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]]
|ISBN=978-3540769521
}}</ref>

Sunspots are visible as dark patches on the Sun's [[photosphere]], and correspond to concentrations of magnetic field where the [[convection|convective transport]] of heat is inhibited from the solar interior to the surface. As a result, sunspots are slightly cooler than the surrounding photosphere, and, so, they appear dark. At a typical [[solar minimum]], few sunspots are visible, and occasionally none can be seen at all. Those that do appear are at high solar latitudes. As the solar cycle progresses towards its [[solar maximum|maximum]], sunspots tend form closer to the solar equator, a phenomenon known as [[Spörer's law]]. The largest sunspots can be tens of thousands of kilometers across.<ref name="Sunspot2001">
{{cite web
|date=30 March 2001
|title=The Largest Sunspot in Ten Years
|url=http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/spacesci/solarexp/sunspot.htm
|publisher=[[Goddard Space Flight Center]]
|accessdate=10 July 2009
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070823050403/http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/spacesci/solarexp/sunspot.htm
|archivedate = 23 August 2007
}}</ref>

An 11-year sunspot cycle is half of a 22-year [[Babcock Model|Babcock]]–Leighton [[solar dynamo|dynamo]] cycle, which corresponds to an oscillatory exchange of energy between [[toroidal and poloidal]] solar magnetic fields. At [[solar maximum|solar-cycle maximum]], the external poloidal dipolar magnetic field is near its dynamo-cycle minimum strength, but an internal [[Toroidal and poloidal|toroidal]] quadrupolar field, generated through differential rotation within the tachocline, is near its maximum strength. At this point in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the convective zone forces emergence of toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere, giving rise to pairs of sunspots, roughly aligned east–west and having footprints with opposite magnetic polarities. The magnetic polarity of sunspot pairs alternates every solar cycle, a phenomenon known as the Hale cycle.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Hale | first1 = G. E. | last2 = Ellerman | first2 = F. | last3 = Nicholson | first3 = S. B. | last4 = Joy | first4 = A. H. | title = The Magnetic Polarity of Sun-Spots | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 49 | page = 153 | year = 1919 | doi = 10.1086/142452|bibcode = 1919ApJ....49..153H }}</ref><ref name="solarcycle">
{{cite web
|date=4 January 2008
|title=NASA Satellites Capture Start of New Solar Cycle
|publisher=[[PhysOrg]]
|url=http://www.physorg.com/news119271347.html
|accessdate=10 July 2009
}}</ref>

During the solar cycle's declining phase, energy shifts from the internal toroidal magnetic field to the external poloidal field, and sunspots diminish in number and size. At [[solar minimum|solar-cycle minimum]], the toroidal field is, correspondingly, at minimum strength, sunspots are relatively rare, and the poloidal field is at its maximum strength. With the rise of the next 11-year sunspot cycle, differential rotation shifts magnetic energy back from the poloidal to the toroidal field, but with a polarity that is opposite to the previous cycle. The process carries on continuously, and in an idealized, simplified scenario, each 11-year sunspot cycle corresponds to a change, then, in the overall polarity of the Sun's large-scale magnetic field.<ref>
{{Cite news
|date=16 February 2001
|title=Sun flips magnetic field
|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/space/02/16/sun.flips/
|work=[[CNN]]
|accessdate=11 July 2009
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|last=Phillips
|first=T.
|date=15 February 2001
|title=The Sun Does a Flip
|url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast15feb_1.htm
|publisher=[[NASA]]
|accessdate=11 July 2009
|deadurl=yes
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512121817/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast15feb_1.htm
|archivedate=12 May 2009
|df=
}}</ref>

The solar magnetic field extends well beyond the Sun itself. The electrically conducting solar wind plasma carries the Sun's magnetic field into space, forming what is called the [[interplanetary magnetic field]].<ref name=Russell2001/> In an approximation known as ideal [[magnetohydrodynamics]], plasma particles only move along the magnetic field lines. As a result, the outward-flowing solar wind stretches the interplanetary magnetic field outward, forcing it into a roughly radial structure. For a simple dipolar solar magnetic field, with opposite hemispherical polarities on either side of the solar magnetic equator, a thin [[heliospheric current sheet|current sheet]] is formed in the solar wind.<ref name=Russell2001/> At great distances, the rotation of the Sun twists the dipolar magnetic field and corresponding current sheet into an [[Archimedean spiral]] structure called the [[Parker spiral]].<ref name=Russell2001/> The interplanetary magnetic field is much stronger than the dipole component of the solar magnetic field. The Sun's dipole magnetic field of 50–400 [[tesla (unit)|μT]] (at the photosphere) reduces with the inverse-cube of the distance to about 0.1 nT at the distance of Earth. However, according to spacecraft observations the interplanetary field at Earth's location is around 5 nT, about a hundred times greater.<ref name=Wang2003>
{{Cite journal
|last=Wang |first=Y.-M.
|last2=Sheeley |first2=N. R.
|date=2003
|title=Modeling the Sun's Large-Scale Magnetic Field during the Maunder Minimum
|journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]]
|volume=591 |issue=2 |pages=1248–56
|bibcode=2003ApJ...591.1248W
|doi=10.1086/375449
|ref=harv
}}</ref> The difference is due to magnetic fields generated by electrical currents in the plasma surrounding the Sun.

===Variation in activity===
[[File:Solar-cycle-data.png|thumb|right|Measurements of solar cycle variation during the last 30 years]]

The Sun's magnetic field leads to many effects that are collectively called [[solar variation|solar activity]]. [[Solar flares]] and [[coronal mass ejections|coronal-mass ejections]] tend to occur at sunspot groups. Slowly changing high-speed streams of [[solar wind]] are emitted from [[coronal holes]] at the photospheric surface. Both coronal-mass ejections and high-speed streams of solar wind carry plasma and [[interplanetary magnetic field]] outward into the Solar System.<ref name=Zirker2002>
{{Cite book
|last=Zirker |first=J. B.
|date=2002
|title=Journey from the Center of the Sun
|pages=120–127
|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]
|isbn=978-0-691-05781-1
}}</ref> The effects of solar activity on Earth include [[aurora (astronomy)|auroras]] at moderate to high latitudes and the disruption of radio communications and [[electric power]]. Solar activity is thought to have played a large role in the [[formation and evolution of the Solar System]].

With solar-cycle modulation of sunspot number comes a corresponding modulation of [[space weather]] conditions, including those surrounding Earth where technological systems can be affected.

===Long-term change===

Long-term secular change in sunspot number is thought, by some scientists, to be correlated with long-term change in solar irradiance,<ref>
{{cite journal
|last=Willson |first=R. C.
|last2=Hudson |first2=H. S.
|date=1991
|title=The Sun's luminosity over a complete solar cycle
|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]
|volume=351
|issue=6321 |pages=42–4
|doi=10.1038/351042a0
|bibcode = 1991Natur.351...42W }}</ref> which, in turn, might influence Earth's long-term climate.<ref>{{cite journal|authorlink=John A. Eddy|last=Eddy|first=John A.|title=The Maunder Minimum|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=192|issue=4245|pages=1189–1202|date=June 1976|pmid=17771739|doi=10.1126/science.192.4245.1189|jstor=17425839|bibcode=1976Sci...192.1189E}}</ref>
For example, in the 17th century, the solar cycle appeared to have stopped entirely for several decades; few sunspots were observed during a period known as the [[Maunder minimum]]. This coincided in time with the era of the [[Little Ice Age]], when Europe experienced unusually cold temperatures.<ref name="Lean">
{{Cite journal
|last=Lean |first=J.
|last2=Skumanich |first2=A.
|last3=White |first3=O.
|date=1992
|title=Estimating the Sun's radiative output during the Maunder Minimum
|journal=[[Geophysical Research Letters]]
|volume=19 |issue=15 |pages=1591–1594
|doi=10.1029/92GL01578
|ref=harv |bibcode=1992GeoRL..19.1591L
}}</ref> Earlier extended minima have been discovered through analysis of [[tree ring]]s and appear to have coincided with lower-than-average global temperatures.<ref>
{{Cite book
|last=Mackay |first=R. M.
|last2=Khalil |first2=M. A. K
|chapter=Greenhouse gases and global warming
|url= https://books.google.com/?id=tQBS3bAX8fUC&pg=PA1&dq=solar+minimum+dendochronology
|editor=Singh, S. N.
|date=2000
|title=Trace Gas Emissions and Plants
|pages=1–28
|publisher=[[Springer (publisher)|Springer]]
|isbn=978-0-7923-6545-7
}}</ref>

A recent theory claims that there are magnetic instabilities in the core of the Sun that cause fluctuations with periods of either 41,000 or 100,000 years. These could provide a better explanation of the [[ice age]]s than the [[Milankovitch cycles]].<ref>
{{Cite journal
|last=Ehrlich |first=R.
|title=Solar Resonant Diffusion Waves as a Driver of Terrestrial Climate Change
|journal=[[Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics]]
|volume=69 |issue=7 |pages=759–766
|date=2007
|doi=10.1016/j.jastp.2007.01.005
|arxiv=astro-ph/0701117
|ref=harv
|bibcode = 2007JASTP..69..759E }}</ref><ref>
{{Cite journal
|last=Clark |first=S.
|title=Sun's fickle heart may leave us cold
|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19325884.500-suns-fickle-heart-may-leave-us-cold.html
|journal=[[New Scientist]]
|issue=2588 |page=12
|date=2007
|doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(07)60196-1
|volume=193
|ref=harv
}}</ref>

==Life phases==
{{Main article|Formation and evolution of the Solar System|Stellar evolution}}

The Sun today is roughly halfway through the most stable part of its life. It has not changed dramatically for over four billion<ref group=lower-alpha name=short /> years, and will remain fairly stable for more than five billion more. However, after hydrogen fusion in its core has stopped, the Sun will undergo severe changes, both internally and externally.

===Formation===
The Sun formed about 4.6 billion years ago from the collapse of part of a giant [[molecular cloud]] that consisted mostly of hydrogen and helium and that probably gave birth to many other stars.<ref name=Zirker2002-7>
{{Cite book|last=Zirker|first=Jack B.|title=Journey from the Center of the Sun|date=2002|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0-691-05781-1|pages=7–8}}
</ref> This age is estimated using [[computer simulation|computer models]] of [[stellar evolution]] and through [[nucleocosmochronology]].<ref name="Bonanno"/> The result is consistent with the [[radiometric dating|radiometric date]] of the oldest Solar System material, at 4.567 billion years ago.<ref>
{{Cite journal
|last=Amelin |first=Y. |last2=Krot |first2=A. |last3=Hutcheon |first3=I.
|last4=Ulyanov |first4=A.
|title=Lead isotopic ages of chondrules and calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions
|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]
|volume=297 |issue=5587 |pages=1678–1683
|date=2002
|doi=10.1126/science.1073950
|pmid=12215641
|ref=harv
|bibcode = 2002Sci...297.1678A }}</ref><ref name="nature436">
{{Cite journal
|last=Baker |first=J. |last2=Bizzarro |first2=M. |last3=Wittig |first3=N.
|last4=Connelly |first4=J. |last5=Haack |first5=H.
|title=Early planetesimal melting from an age of 4.5662 Gyr for differentiated meteorites
|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]
|volume=436
|issue=7054|pages=1127–1131
|date=2005
|pmid=16121173
|doi=10.1038/nature03882
|ref=harv
|bibcode = 2005Natur.436.1127B }}</ref> Studies of ancient [[meteorite]]s reveal traces of stable daughter nuclei of short-lived isotopes, such as [[iron-60]], that form only in exploding, short-lived stars. This indicates that one or more supernovae must have occurred near the location where the Sun formed. A [[shock wave]] from a nearby supernova would have triggered the formation of the Sun by compressing the matter within the molecular cloud and causing certain regions to collapse under their own gravity.<ref>{{Cite journal| last1 = Williams | first1 = J.| title = The astrophysical environment of the solar birthplace| journal = Contemporary Physics| volume = 51| issue = 5| pages = 381–396| year = 2010| doi = 10.1080/00107511003764725|bibcode = 2010ConPh..51..381W |arxiv = 1008.2973 }}</ref> As one fragment of the cloud collapsed it also began to rotate because of [[conservation of angular momentum]] and heat up with the increasing pressure. Much of the mass became concentrated in the center, whereas the rest flattened out into a disk that would become the planets and other Solar System bodies. Gravity and pressure within the core of the cloud generated a lot of heat as it accreted more matter from the surrounding disk, eventually triggering [[stellar nucleosynthesis|nuclear fusion]]. Thus, the Sun was born.

===Main sequence===
[[File:Solar evolution (English).svg|right|thumb|320px|Evolution of the Sun's [[Solar luminosity|luminosity]], [[Solar radius|radius]] and [[effective temperature]] compared to the present Sun. After Ribas (2010)<ref name=ribas2010>{{Cite journal | last=Ribas | first=Ignasi |title=Proceedings of the IAU Symposium 264 'Solar and Stellar Variability – Impact on Earth and Planets': The Sun and stars as the primary energy input in planetary atmospheres| volume=264 | pages=3–18 |date=February 2010 | doi=10.1017/S1743921309992298 | bibcode=2010IAUS..264....3R | journal=Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union |arxiv = 0911.4872 }}</ref>]]
The Sun is about halfway through its [[main sequence|main-sequence]] stage, during which nuclear fusion reactions in its core fuse hydrogen into helium. Each second, more than four million [[tonne]]s of matter are converted into energy within the Sun's core, producing [[neutrino]]s and [[solar radiation]]. At this rate, the Sun has so far converted around 100 times the mass of Earth into energy, about 0.03% of the total mass of the Sun. The Sun will spend a total of approximately 10 [[1000000000 (number)|billion]] years as a main-sequence star.<ref>
{{Cite book
|last=Goldsmith |first=D. |last2=Owen |first2=T.
|title=The search for life in the universe
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Q17NmHY6wloC&pg=PA96
|page=96
|publisher=[[University Science Books]]
|date=2001
|isbn=978-1-891389-16-0
}}</ref> The Sun is gradually becoming hotter during its time on the main sequence, because the helium atoms in the core occupy less volume than the [[hydrogen atom]]s that were fused. The core is therefore shrinking, allowing the outer layers of the Sun to move closer to the centre and experience a stronger gravitational force, according to the [[inverse-square law]]. This stronger force increases the pressure on the core, which is resisted by a gradual increase in the rate at which fusion occurs. This process speeds up as the core gradually becomes denser. It is estimated that the Sun has become 30% brighter in the last 4.5 billion years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/~infocom/The%20Website/evolution.html|title=The Sun's Evolution|publisher=}}</ref> At present, it is increasing in brightness by about 1% every 100 million years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.sciencemag.org/climate/2014/01/earth-wont-die-soon-thought|title=Earth Won't Die as Soon as Thought|date=22 January 2014|publisher=}}</ref>

===After core hydrogen exhaustion===

[[File:Sun red giant.svg|thumb|301px|left|The size of the current Sun (now in the [[main sequence]]) compared to its estimated size during its red-giant phase in the future]]
The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a [[supernova]]. Instead it will exit the [[main sequence]] in approximately 5 billion years and start to turn into a [[red giant]].<ref>{{cite web|author1=Nola Taylor Redd|title=Red Giant Stars: Facts, Definition & the Future of the Sun|url=http://www.space.com/22471-red-giant-stars.html|website=space.com|accessdate=20 February 2016}}</ref><ref name=schroder>{{Cite journal | last1 = Schröder | first1 = K. -P. | last2 = Connon Smith | first2 = R. | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x | title = Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited | journal = Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society | volume = 386 | pages = 155–163 | year = 2008 | pmid = | pmc = |arxiv = 0801.4031 |bibcode = 2008MNRAS.386..155S }}</ref> As a red giant, the Sun will grow so large that it will engulf Mercury, Venus, and probably Earth.<ref name=schroder /><ref name=sackmann>{{Cite journal | last1 = Boothroyd | first1 = A. I. | last2 = Sackmann | first2 = I. ‐J. | doi = 10.1086/306546 | title = The CNO Isotopes: Deep Circulation in Red Giants and First and Second Dredge‐up | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 510 | pages = 232–250 | year = 1999 | pmid = | pmc = |bibcode = 1999ApJ...510..232B }}</ref>

Even before it becomes a red giant, the luminosity of the Sun will have nearly doubled, and Earth will receive as much sunlight as Venus receives today. Once the core hydrogen is exhausted in 5.4 billion years, the Sun will expand into a [[subgiant]] phase and slowly double in size over about half a billion years. It will then expand more rapidly over about half a billion years until it is over two hundred times larger than today and a couple of thousand times more luminous. This then starts the [[red giant branch|red-giant-branch]] phase where the Sun will spend around a billion years and lose around a third of its mass.<ref name=schroder/>

[[File:Evolution of a Sun-like star.svg|300px|right|thumb|Evolution of a Sun-like star. The track of a one solar mass star on the [[Hertzsprung–Russell diagram]] is shown from the main sequence to the post-asymptotic-giant-branch stage.]]
After the red-giant branch the Sun has approximately 120 million years of active life left, but much happens. First, the core, full of [[degenerate matter|degenerate]] helium ignites violently in the [[helium flash]], where it is estimated that 6% of the core, itself 40% of the Sun's mass, will be converted into carbon within a matter of minutes through the [[triple-alpha process]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/~infocom/The%20Website/end.html|title=The End Of The Sun|publisher=}}</ref> The Sun then shrinks to around 10 times its current size and 50 times the luminosity, with a temperature a little lower than today. It will then have reached the [[red clump]] or [[horizontal branch]], but a star of the Sun's mass does not evolve blueward along the horizontal branch. Instead, it just becomes moderately larger and more luminous over about 100 million years as it continues to burn helium in the core.<ref name=schroder/>

When the helium is exhausted, the Sun will repeat the expansion it followed when the hydrogen in the core was exhausted, except that this time it all happens faster, and the Sun becomes larger and more luminous. This is the [[asymptotic giant branch|asymptotic-giant-branch]] phase, and the Sun is alternately burning hydrogen in a shell or helium in a deeper shell. After about 20 million years on the early asymptotic giant branch, the Sun becomes increasingly unstable, with rapid mass loss and [[thermal pulse]]s that increase the size and luminosity for a few hundred years every 100,000 years or so. The thermal pulses become larger each time, with the later pulses pushing the luminosity to as much as 5,000 times the current level and the radius to over 1 AU.<ref name=agb>{{Cite journal | last1 = Vassiliadis | first1 = E. | last2 = Wood | first2 = P. R. | doi = 10.1086/173033 | title = Evolution of low- and intermediate-mass stars to the end of the asymptotic giant branch with mass loss | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 413 | page = 641 | year = 1993 | pmid = | pmc = |bibcode = 1993ApJ...413..641V }}</ref> According to a 2008 model, Earth's orbit is shrinking due to [[tidal forces]] (and, eventually, drag from the lower [[chromosphere]]), so that it will be engulfed by the Sun near the tip of the red giant branch phase, 1 and 3.8 million years after Mercury and Venus have respectively suffered the same fate. Models vary depending on the rate and timing of mass loss. Models that have higher mass loss on the red-giant branch produce smaller, less luminous stars at the tip of the asymptotic giant branch, perhaps only 2,000 times the luminosity and less than 200 times the radius.<ref name=schroder/> For the Sun, four thermal pulses are predicted before it completely loses its outer envelope and starts to make a [[planetary nebula]]. By the end of that phase – lasting approximately 500,000 years – the Sun will only have about half of its current mass.

The post-asymptotic-giant-branch evolution is even faster. The luminosity stays approximately constant as the temperature increases, with the ejected half of the Sun's mass becoming ionised into a [[planetary nebula]] as the exposed core reaches 30,000 K. The final naked core, a [[white dwarf]], will have a temperature of over 100,000 K, and contain an estimated 54.05% of the Sun's present day mass.<ref name=schroder/> The planetary nebula will disperse in about 10,000 years, but the white dwarf will survive for trillions of years before fading to a hypothetical [[black dwarf]].<ref name=bloecker1>{{bibcode|1995A&A...297..727B}}</ref><ref name=bloecker2>{{bibcode|1995A&A...299..755B}}</ref>

==Motion and location==

===Orbit in Milky Way===

[[File:Artist%27s_impression_of_the_Milky_Way_(updated_-_annotated).jpg|thumb|right|Illustration of the Milky Way, showing the location of the Sun]]

The Sun lies close to the inner rim of the [[Milky Way]]'s [[Orion Arm]], in the [[Local Interstellar Cloud]] or the [[Gould Belt]], at a distance of 7.5–8.5 [[Kiloparsec|kpc]] (25,000–28,000 light-years) from the [[Galactic Center]].<ref>[http://interstellar.jpl.nasa.gov/interstellar/probe/introduction/neighborhood.html, Our Local Galactic Neighborhood, NASA] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107044627/http://interstellar.jpl.nasa.gov/interstellar/probe/introduction/neighborhood.html |date=7 November 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.centauri-dreams.org/?p=14203|title=Into the Interstellar Void|work=Centauri Dreams}}</ref>
<ref name="distance1">
{{Cite journal
|last=Reid|first=M.J.
|title=The distance to the center of the Galaxy
|journal=[[Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics]]
|date=1993
|volume=31
|issue=1 |pages=345–372
|doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.002021
|bibcode=1993ARA&A..31..345R
|ref=harv
}}</ref><ref name="distance2">
{{Cite journal
|last=Eisenhauer |first=F.
|title=A Geometric Determination of the Distance to the Galactic Center
|journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]]
|volume=597 |issue=2 |pages=L121–L124
|date=2003
|doi=10.1086/380188
|bibcode=2003ApJ...597L.121E
|ref=harv
|arxiv = astro-ph/0306220 |display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name="distance3">
{{Cite journal
|last=Horrobin |first=M.
|title=First results from SPIFFI. I: The Galactic Center
|url=http://www2011.mpe.mpg.de/SPIFFI/preprints/first_result_an1.pdf
|format=PDF|journal=[[Astronomische Nachrichten]]
|volume=325 |issue=2 |pages=120–123
|date=2004
|doi=10.1002/asna.200310181
|ref=harv |bibcode=2004AN....325...88H
|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name="eisenhaueretal2005">
{{Cite journal
|last=Eisenhauer |first=F.
|title=SINFONI in the Galactic Center: Young Stars and Infrared Flares in the Central Light-Month
|journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]]
|volume = 628 |issue=1 |pages=246–259
|date=2005
|doi=10.1086/430667
|bibcode=2005ApJ...628..246E
|ref=harv
|arxiv = astro-ph/0502129 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>
The Sun is contained within the [[Local Bubble]], a space of rarefied hot gas, possibly produced by the supernova remnant [[Geminga]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gehrels|first1=Neil|last2=Chen|first2=Wan|date= 25 February 1993 |title=The Geminga supernova as a possible cause of the local interstellar bubble|journal=Nature|volume=361|issue=6414|pages=706–707|doi=10.1038/361704a0|last3=Mereghetti |first3=S. |ref=harv|bibcode = 1993Natur.361..704B }}</ref> The distance between the local arm and the next arm out, the [[Perseus Arm]], is about 6,500 light-years.<ref name="fn9">
{{cite press
|last=English |first=J.
|title=Exposing the Stuff Between the Stars
|url = http://www.ras.ucalgary.ca/CGPS/press/aas00/pr/pr_14012000/pr_14012000map1.html
|publisher=Hubble News Desk
|date=2000
|accessdate = 10 May 2007
}}</ref> The Sun, and thus the Solar System, is found in what scientists call the [[galactic habitable zone]].
The ''Apex of the Sun's Way'', or the [[solar apex]], is the direction that the Sun travels relative to other nearby stars. This motion is towards a point in the constellation [[Hercules (constellation)|Hercules]], near the star [[Vega]]. Of the 50 [[Nearest stars|nearest stellar systems]] within 17 light-years from Earth (the closest being the red dwarf [[Proxima Centauri]] at approximately 4.2 light-years), the Sun ranks fourth in mass.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Adams |first=F. C. |last2=Graves |first2=G. |last3=Laughlin |first3=G. J. M. |date=2004 |title=Red Dwarfs and the End of the Main Sequence |url=http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/pdf/571/57102211.pdf |journal=[[Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica]] |volume=22 |pages=46–49 |bibcode=2004RMxAC..22...46A |ref=harv |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726103734/http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/pdf/571/57102211.pdf |archivedate=26 July 2011 }}</ref>

The Sun orbits the center of the Milky Way, and it is presently moving in the direction of constellation of [[Cygnus (constellation)|Cygnus]]. The Sun's orbit around the Milky Way is roughly elliptical with orbital perturbations due to the non-uniform mass distribution in Milky Way, such as that in and between the galactic spiral arms. In addition, the Sun oscillates up and down relative to the galactic plane approximately 2.7 times per orbit.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moore|first1=Patrick|last2=Rees|first2=Robin|title=Patrick Moore's Data Book of Astronomy|date=16 January 2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=[[Cambridge]]|isbn=1139495224|ref=harv}}</ref> It has been argued that the Sun's passage through the higher density spiral arms often coincides with [[mass extinction]]s on Earth, perhaps due to increased [[impact events]].<ref name="extinction">{{Cite journal |last=Gillman |first=M. |last2=Erenler |first2=H. |title=The galactic cycle of extinction |journal=[[International Journal of Astrobiology]] |volume=7 | issue = 1 | pages=17–26 |date=2008 |doi=10.1017/S1473550408004047 |ref=harv |bibcode=2008IJAsB...7...17G}}</ref> It takes the Solar System about 225–250 million years to complete one orbit through the Milky Way (a ''[[galactic year]]''),<ref name="fn10">
{{cite web |last=Leong |first=S. |title=Period of the Sun's Orbit around the Galaxy (Cosmic Year) |url=http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2002/StacyLeong.shtml |work=The Physics Factbook |date=2002 |accessdate=10 May 2007}}</ref> so it is thought to have completed 20–25 orbits during the lifetime of the Sun. The [[orbital speed]] of the Solar System about the center of the Milky Way is approximately 251 km/s (156 mi/s).<ref name="space.newscientist.com">{{Cite journal |last=Croswell |first=K. |date=2008 |title=Milky Way keeps tight grip on its neighbor |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12652-milky-way-keeps-a-light-grip-on-speedy-neighbours.html#.VQ7JD46WnCY |journal=[[New Scientist]] |volume=199 |issue=2669 |page=8 |doi=10.1016/S0262-4079(08)62026-6 |ref=harv}}</ref> At this speed, it takes around 1,190 years for the Solar System to travel a distance of 1 light-year, or 7 days to travel 1 [[Astronomical unit|AU]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Garlick |first=M.A. |title=The Story of the Solar System |page=46 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=2002 |isbn=0-521-80336-5}}</ref>

The Milky Way is moving with respect to the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] (CMB) in the direction of the constellation [[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]] with a speed of 550 km/s, and the Sun's resultant velocity with respect to the CMB is about 370 km/s in the direction of [[Crater (constellation)|Crater]] or [[Leo (constellation)|Leo]].<ref>{{Cite journal
|last=Kogut |first=A.
|date=1993
|title=Dipole Anisotropy in the COBE Differential Microwave Radiometers First-Year Sky Maps
|journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]]
|volume=419 |page=1
|arxiv=astro-ph/9312056
|doi=10.1086/173453
|bibcode = 1993ApJ...419....1K |display-authors=etal}}</ref>

==Theoretical problems==
[[File:Map of the full sun.jpg|thumb|Map of the full Sun by STEREO and [[Solar Dynamics Observatory|SDO]] spacecraft]]

===Coronal heating problem===
{{Main article|Corona}}
The temperature of the photosphere is approximately 6,000 K, whereas the temperature of the corona reaches 1,000,000–2,000,000 K.<ref name=Erdelyi2007/> The high temperature of the corona shows that it is heated by something other than direct [[heat conduction]] from the photosphere.<ref name=Russell2001/>

It is thought that the energy necessary to heat the corona is provided by turbulent motion in the convection zone below the photosphere, and two main mechanisms have been proposed to explain coronal heating.<ref name=Erdelyi2007/> The first is [[wave]] heating, in which sound, gravitational or magnetohydrodynamic waves are produced by turbulence in the convection zone.<ref name=Erdelyi2007/> These waves travel upward and dissipate in the corona, depositing their energy in the ambient matter in the form of heat.<ref name="Alfven">{{Cite journal |last=Alfvén |first=H. |title=Magneto-hydrodynamic waves, and the heating of the solar corona |journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]] |volume=107 |issue=2 |pages=211–219 |date=1947 |bibcode=1947MNRAS.107..211A |ref=harv |doi=10.1093/mnras/107.2.211}}</ref> The other is [[magnetic field|magnetic]] heating, in which magnetic energy is continuously built up by photospheric motion and released through [[magnetic reconnection]] in the form of large [[solar flare]]s and myriad similar but smaller events—[[nanoflares]].<ref name="Parker2">{{Cite journal |last=Parker |first=E.N. |title=Nanoflares and the solar X-ray corona |journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]] |volume=330 |issue=1 |page=474 |date=1988 |doi=10.1086/166485 |bibcode=1988ApJ...330..474P |ref=harv}}</ref>

Currently, it is unclear whether waves are an efficient heating mechanism. All waves except [[Alfvén wave]]s have been found to dissipate or refract before reaching the corona.<ref name="Sturrock">{{Cite journal |last=Sturrock |first=P.A. |last2=Uchida |first2=Y. |title=Coronal heating by stochastic magnetic pumping |journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]] |volume=246 |issue=1 |page=331 |date=1981 |doi=10.1086/158926 |bibcode=1981ApJ...246..331S |ref=harv}}</ref> In addition, Alfvén waves do not easily dissipate in the corona. Current research focus has therefore shifted towards flare heating mechanisms.<ref name=Erdelyi2007>{{Cite journal|last=Erdèlyi|first=R.|last2=Ballai|first2=I.|title=Heating of the solar and stellar coronae: a review |date=2007 |journal=Astron. Nachr. |volume=328 |issue=8 |pages=726–733 |doi=10.1002/asna.200710803 |ref=harv |bibcode=2007AN....328..726E}}</ref>

===Faint young Sun problem===
{{Main article|Faint young Sun paradox}}

Theoretical models of the Sun's development suggest that 3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago, during the [[Archean|Archean eon]], the Sun was only about 75% as bright as it is today. Such a weak star would not have been able to sustain liquid water on Earth's surface, and thus life should not have been able to develop. However, the geological record demonstrates that Earth has remained at a fairly constant temperature throughout its history, and that the young Earth was somewhat warmer than it is today. One theory among scientists is that the atmosphere of the young Earth contained much larger quantities of [[greenhouse gas]]es (such as [[carbon dioxide]], [[methane]]) than are present today, which trapped enough heat to compensate for the smaller amount of [[solar energy]] reaching it.<ref name="Kasting">
{{Cite journal
|last=Kasting |first=J.F.
|last2=Ackerman |first2=T.P.
|title=Climatic Consequences of Very High Carbon Dioxide Levels in the Earth's Early Atmosphere
|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]
|volume=234 |issue=4782 |pages=1383–1385
|date=1986
|doi=10.1126/science.11539665
|pmid=11539665
|ref=harv
}}</ref>

However, examination of Archaean sediments appears inconsistent with the hypothesis of high greenhouse concentrations. Instead, the moderate temperature range may be explained by a lower surface [[albedo]] brought about by less continental area and the "lack of biologically induced cloud condensation nuclei". This would have led to increased absorption of solar energy, thereby compensating for the lower solar output.<ref name = "Rosing">{{cite journal
|author1=Rosing, Minik T. |author2=Bird, Dennis K. |author3=Sleep, Norman H. |author4=Bjerrum, Christian J. | title=No climate paradox under the faint early Sun
| journal=Nature | volume=464
| issue=7289 | pages=744–747
| date=April 1, 2010
| pmid=20360739 | doi=10.1038/nature08955 |bibcode = 2010Natur.464..744R }}</ref>

==History of observation==

The enormous effect of the Sun on Earth has been recognized since [[prehistoric times]], and the Sun has been [[solar deity|regarded by some cultures]] as a [[deity]].

===Early understanding===
[[File:Solvognen DO-6865 2000.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Trundholm sun chariot]] pulled by a horse is a sculpture believed to be illustrating an important part of [[Nordic Bronze Age]] mythology. The sculpture is probably from around 1350 [[Anno Domini|BC]]. It is displayed at the [[National Museum of Denmark]].]]
{{See also|The Sun in culture}}
The Sun has been an object of veneration in many cultures throughout human history. Humanity's most fundamental understanding of the Sun is as the luminous disk in the [[sky]], whose presence above the [[horizon]] creates day and whose absence causes night. In many prehistoric and ancient cultures, the Sun was thought to be a [[solar deity]] or other [[supernatural]] entity. [[Sun worship|Worship of the Sun]] was central to civilizations such as the [[ancient Egypt]]ians, the [[Inca]] of South America and the [[Aztec]]s of what is now [[Mexico]]. In religions such as [[Hinduism]], the Sun is still considered a god. Many ancient monuments were constructed with solar phenomena in mind; for example, stone [[megalith]]s accurately mark the summer or winter [[solstice]] (some of the most prominent megaliths are located in [[Nabta Playa]], [[Egypt]]; [[Mnajdra]], Malta and at [[Stonehenge]], England); [[Newgrange]], a prehistoric human-built mount in Ireland, was designed to detect the winter solstice; the pyramid of [[El Castillo, Chichen Itza|El Castillo]] at [[Chichén Itzá]] in Mexico is designed to cast shadows in the shape of serpents climbing the [[pyramid]] at the vernal and autumnal [[equinox]]es.

The Egyptians portrayed the god [[Ra]] as being carried across the sky in a solar barque, accompanied by lesser gods, and to the Greeks, he was [[Helios]], carried by a chariot drawn by fiery horses. From the reign of [[Elagabalus]] in the [[Decline of the Roman Empire|late Roman Empire]] the Sun's birthday was a holiday celebrated as [[Sol Invictus]] (literally "Unconquered Sun") soon after the winter solstice, which may have been an antecedent to Christmas. Regarding the [[fixed star]]s, the Sun appears from Earth to revolve once a year along the [[ecliptic]] through the [[zodiac]], and so Greek astronomers categorized it as one of the seven [[classical planets|planets]] (Greek ''planetes'', "wanderer"); the naming of the [[Names of the days of the week|days of the weeks]] after the seven planets dates to the [[Roman Empire|Roman era]].<ref name=oed>{{cite web| url= http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/american_english/planet|publisher = Oxford Dictionaries| title = Planet| accessdate=22 March 2015|date=December 2007}}</ref><ref name=almagest>{{Cite journal|first=Bernard R.|last=Goldstein|title=Saving the phenomena : the background to Ptolemy's planetary theory| journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy|volume=28|issue=1|date=1997|pages=1–12|location=Cambridge (UK) |bibcode=1997JHA....28....1G|ref=harv}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Ptolemy's Almagest|author= Ptolemy|last2=Toomer|first2=G. J.|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=1998|isbn=978-0-691-00260-6}}</ref>

===Development of scientific understanding===

In the early first millennium BC, [[Babylonian astronomy|Babylonian astronomers]] observed that the Sun's motion along the ecliptic is not uniform, though they did not know why; it is today known that this is due to the movement of [[Earth]] in an [[elliptic orbit]] around the Sun, with Earth moving faster when it is nearer to the Sun at [[Apsis|perihelion]] and moving slower when it is farther away at [[Apsis|aphelion]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Babylon to Voyager and beyond: a history of planetary astronomy|first=David|last=Leverington|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|date=2003|isbn=0-521-80840-5|pages=6–7|ref=harv|postscript=}}</ref>

One of the first people to offer a scientific or philosophical explanation for the Sun was the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]] [[Anaxagoras]]. He reasoned that it was not the [[chariot]] of [[Helios]], but instead a giant flaming ball of metal even larger than the land of the [[Peloponnese|Peloponnesus]] and that the [[Moon]] reflected the light of the Sun.<ref>
{{Cite journal
|last=Sider |first=D.
|title=Anaxagoras on the Size of the Sun
|jstor=269068
|journal=[[Classical Philology (journal)|Classical Philologys]]
|volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=128–129
|date=1973
|doi=10.1086/365951
|ref=harv
}}</ref> For teaching this [[heresy]], he was imprisoned by the authorities and [[capital punishment|sentenced to death]], though he was later released through the intervention of [[Pericles]]. [[Eratosthenes]] estimated the distance between Earth and the Sun in the 3rd century BC as "of stadia [[myriad]]s 400 and 80000", the translation of which is ambiguous, implying either 4,080,000 [[Stadion (unit)|stadia]] (755,000 km) or 804,000,000 stadia (148 to 153 million kilometers or 0.99 to 1.02 AU); the latter value is correct to within a few percent. In the 1st century AD, [[Ptolemy]] estimated the distance as 1,210 times [[Earth radius|the radius of Earth]], approximately {{convert|{{#expr:1.210*6.371round2}}|e6km|AU|sp=us}}.<ref>
{{Cite journal
|last=Goldstein |first=B.R.
|title=The Arabic Version of Ptolemy's Planetary Hypotheses
|journal=[[Transactions of the American Philosophical Society]]
|volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=9–12
|date=1967
|doi=10.2307/1006040
|ref=harv
|jstor=1006040
}}</ref>

The theory that the Sun is the center around which the planets orbit was first proposed by the ancient Greek [[Aristarchus of Samos]] in the 3rd century BC, and later adopted by [[Seleucus of Seleucia]] (see [[Heliocentrism]]). This view was developed in a more detailed [[mathematical model]] of a heliocentric system in the 16th century by [[Nicolaus Copernicus]].

Observations of sunspots were recorded during the [[Han Dynasty]] (206 BC–AD 220) by [[Chinese astronomy|Chinese astronomers]], who maintained records of these observations for centuries. [[Averroes]] also provided a description of sunspots in the 12th century.<ref>
{{cite book |last=Ead |first=Hamed A. |title=Averroes As A Physician |publisher=[[University of Cairo]]}}</ref> The invention of the [[telescope]] in the early 17th century permitted detailed observations of [[sunspot]]s by [[Thomas Harriot]], [[Galileo Galilei]] and other astronomers. Galileo posited that sunspots were on the surface of the Sun rather than small objects passing between Earth and the Sun.<ref>
{{cite web
|title=Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/galilei_galileo.shtml
|publisher=BBC
|accessdate=22 March 2006
}}</ref>

[[Astronomy in medieval Islam|Arabic astronomical contributions]] include [[Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī|Albatenius]]' discovery that the direction of the Sun's [[apogee]] (the place in the Sun's orbit against the fixed stars where it seems to be moving slowest) is changing.<ref>''A short History of scientific ideas to 1900'', C. Singer, Oxford University Press, 1959, p. 151.</ref> (In modern heliocentric terms, this is caused by a gradual motion of the aphelion of the ''Earth's'' orbit). [[Ibn Yunus]] observed more than 10,000 entries for the Sun's position for many years using a large [[astrolabe]].<ref>The Arabian Science, C. Ronan, pp. 201–244 in ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of the World's Science'', Cambridge University Press, 1983; at pp. 213–214.</ref>

[[File:Sun-bonatti.png|thumb|Sol, the Sun, from a 1550 edition of [[Guido Bonatti]]'s ''Liber astronomiae''.]]
From an observation of a [[transit of Venus]] in 1032, the Persian astronomer and polymath [[Avicenna]] concluded that Venus is closer to Earth than the Sun.<ref name=Goldstein>{{Cite journal|title=Theory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy|first=Bernard R.|last=Goldstein|journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]|volume=63|issue=1|date=March 1972|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|pages=39–47 [44]|doi=10.1086/350839|ref=harv}}</ref> In 1672 [[Giovanni Cassini]] and [[Jean Richer]] determined the distance to [[Mars]] and were thereby able to calculate the distance to the Sun.

In 1666, [[Isaac Newton]] observed the Sun's light using a [[prism (optics)|prism]], and showed that it is made up of light of many colors.<ref>
{{cite web
|title=Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727)
|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/newton_isaac.shtml
|publisher=BBC
|accessdate=22 March 2006
}}</ref> In 1800, [[William Herschel]] discovered [[infrared]] radiation beyond the red part of the solar spectrum.<ref>
{{cite web
|title=Herschel Discovers Infrared Light
|url=http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/cosmic_classroom/classroom_activities/herschel_bio.html
|publisher=Cool Cosmos
|accessdate=22 March 2006
|deadurl=yes
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225094516/http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/cosmic_classroom/classroom_activities/herschel_bio.html
|archivedate=25 February 2012
|df=
}}</ref> The 19th century saw advancement in spectroscopic studies of the Sun; [[Joseph von Fraunhofer]] recorded more than 600 [[absorption lines]] in the spectrum, the strongest of which are still often referred to as [[Fraunhofer lines]]. In the early years of the modern scientific era, the source of the Sun's energy was a significant puzzle. [[Lord Kelvin]] suggested that the Sun is a gradually cooling liquid body that is radiating an internal store of heat.<ref name=kelvin>
{{Cite journal
|last=Thomson |first=W.
|title=On the Age of the Sun's Heat
|url=http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_the_age_of_the_suns_heat.html
|journal=[[Macmillan's Magazine]]
|date=1862
|volume=5 |pages=388–393
|ref=harv
}}</ref> Kelvin and [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] then proposed a [[Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism|gravitational contraction]] mechanism to explain the energy output, but the resulting age estimate was only 20 million years, well short of the time span of at least 300 million years suggested by some geological discoveries of that time.<ref name=kelvin /><ref>{{cite journal|year=2000|title=Kelvin's age of the Earth paradox revisited|journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]]|volume=105|issue=B6|pages=13155–13158|bibcode=2000JGR...10513155S|doi=10.1029/2000JB900028|last1=Stacey|first1=Frank D.}}</ref> In 1890 [[Joseph Norman Lockyer|Joseph Lockyer]], who discovered helium in the solar spectrum, proposed a meteoritic hypothesis for the formation and evolution of the Sun.<ref>
{{Cite book
|last=Lockyer |first=J.N.
|title=The meteoritic hypothesis; a statement of the results of a spectroscopic inquiry into the origin of cosmical systems
|publisher=[[Macmillan and Co.|Macmillan and Co]]
|date=1890
|bibcode=1890mhsr.book.....L
}}</ref>

Not until 1904 was a documented solution offered. [[Ernest Rutherford]] suggested that the Sun's output could be maintained by an internal source of heat, and suggested [[radioactive decay]] as the source.<ref>
{{cite web
|last=Darden |first=L.
|title=The Nature of Scientific Inquiry
|url=http://www.philosophy.umd.edu/Faculty/LDarden/sciinq/
|date=1998
}}</ref> However, it would be [[Albert Einstein]] who would provide the essential clue to the source of the Sun's energy output with his [[mass-energy equivalence]] relation {{nowrap|''E'' {{=}} ''mc''2}}.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Hawking |first = S. W. |author-link = Stephen Hawking |date = 2001 |title = The Universe in a Nutshell |publisher = Bantam Books |isbn = 0-553-80202-X}}</ref> In 1920, Sir [[Arthur Eddington]] proposed that the pressures and temperatures at the core of the Sun could produce a nuclear fusion reaction that merged hydrogen (protons) into helium nuclei, resulting in a production of energy from the net change in mass.<ref>
{{cite web
|title=Studying the stars, testing relativity: Sir Arthur Eddington
|url=http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEMDYPXO4HD_index_0.html
|work=Space Science
|publisher=[[European Space Agency]]
|date=2005
|accessdate=1 August 2007
}}</ref> The preponderance of hydrogen in the Sun was confirmed in 1925 by [[Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin|Cecilia Payne]] using the [[ionization]] theory developed by [[Meghnad Saha]], an Indian physicist. The theoretical concept of fusion was developed in the 1930s by the astrophysicists [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] and [[Hans Bethe]]. Hans Bethe calculated the details of the two main energy-producing nuclear reactions that power the Sun.<ref name="Bethe">
{{Cite journal
|last=Bethe |first=H.
|title=On the Formation of Deuterons by Proton Combination
|journal=[[Physical Review]]
|volume=54 |issue=10 |pages=862–862
|date=1938
|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.54.862.2
|last2=Critchfield
|first2=C.
|ref=harv
|bibcode = 1938PhRv...54Q.862B }}</ref><ref name="Bethe2">
{{Cite journal
|last=Bethe |first=H.
|title=Energy Production in Stars
|journal=[[Physical Review]]
|volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=434–456
|date=1939
|doi=10.1103/PhysRev.55.434
|ref=harv
|bibcode=1939PhRv...55..434B
}}</ref> In 1957, [[Margaret Burbidge]], [[Geoffrey Burbidge]], [[William Alfred Fowler|William Fowler]] and [[Fred Hoyle]] showed that most of the elements in the universe have been [[nucleosynthesis|synthesized]] by nuclear reactions inside stars, some like the Sun.<ref>
{{Cite journal
|first=E.M. |last=Burbidge
|first2=G.R. |last2=Burbidge
|first3=W.A. |last3=Fowler
|first4=F. |last4=Hoyle
|title=Synthesis of the Elements in Stars
|journal=[[Reviews of Modern Physics]]
|volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=547–650
|date=1957
|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547
|bibcode=1957RvMP...29..547B
|ref=harv
}}</ref>

===Solar space missions===
{{see also|Solar observatory}}
[[File:Sunspots and Solar Flares.jpg|thumb|The Sun giving out a large [[geomagnetic storm]] on 1:29 pm, EST, 13 March 2012]]
[[File:Moon transit of sun large.ogv|thumb|left|A lunar transit of the Sun captured during calibration of STEREO B's ultraviolet imaging cameras<ref>{{cite web
|last=Phillips
|first=T.
|title=Stereo Eclipse
|url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2007/12mar_stereoeclipse.htm
|work=Science@NASA
|publisher=[[NASA]]
|date=2007
|accessdate=19 June 2008
|deadurl=yes
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610082213/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2007/12mar_stereoeclipse.htm
|archivedate=10 June 2008
|df=
}}</ref>]]
The first satellites designed to observe the Sun were [[NASA]]'s [[Pioneer program|Pioneers]] 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, which were launched between 1959 and 1968. These probes orbited the Sun at a distance similar to that of Earth, and made the first detailed measurements of the solar wind and the solar magnetic field. [[Pioneer 9]] operated for a particularly long time, transmitting data until May 1983.<ref>{{cite web
|last=Wade |first=M.
|title=Pioneer 6-7-8-9-E
|url=http://www.astronautix.com/craft/pio6789e.htm
|date=2008
|publisher=[[Encyclopedia Astronautica]]
|accessdate=22 March 2006
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|title=Solar System Exploration: Missions: By Target: Our Solar System: Past: Pioneer 9
|url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Pioneer_09
|publisher=[[NASA]]
|accessdate=30 October 2010
|quote=NASA maintained contact with Pioneer 9 until May 1983
}}</ref>

In the 1970s, two [[Helios probes|Helios]] spacecraft and the [[Skylab]] [[Apollo Telescope Mount]] provided scientists with significant new data on solar wind and the solar corona. The Helios 1 and 2 probes were U.S.–German collaborations that studied the solar wind from an orbit carrying the spacecraft inside [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]'s orbit at [[perihelion]].<ref name=Burlaga2001/> The Skylab space station, launched by NASA in 1973, included a solar [[observatory]] module called the Apollo Telescope Mount that was operated by astronauts resident on the station.<ref name=Dwivedi2006/> Skylab made the first time-resolved observations of the solar transition region and of ultraviolet emissions from the solar corona.<ref name=Dwivedi2006/> Discoveries included the first observations of [[coronal mass ejection]]s, then called "coronal transients", and of [[coronal hole]]s, now known to be intimately associated with the [[solar wind]].<ref name=Burlaga2001>{{Cite journal|last=Burlaga|first=L.F.|title=Magnetic Fields and plasmas in the inner heliosphere: Helios results|date=2001|journal=Planetary and Space Science|volume=49|issue=14–15|pages=1619–27|doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(01)00098-8|ref=harv|bibcode=2001P&SS...49.1619B}}</ref>

In 1980, the [[Solar Maximum Mission]] was launched by [[NASA]]. This spacecraft was designed to observe [[gamma ray]]s, [[X-ray]]s and [[Ultraviolet|UV]] radiation from [[solar flare]]s during a time of high solar activity and [[Sun#External links|solar luminosity]]. Just a few months after launch, however, an electronics failure caused the probe to go into standby mode, and it spent the next three years in this inactive state. In 1984 [[Space Shuttle Challenger|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']] mission [[STS-41C]] retrieved the satellite and repaired its electronics before re-releasing it into orbit. The Solar Maximum Mission subsequently acquired thousands of images of the solar corona before [[Atmospheric reentry|re-entering]] Earth's atmosphere in June 1989.<ref>
{{cite web |last=Burkepile |first=C.J.
|title=Solar Maximum Mission Overview
|url=http://web.hao.ucar.edu/public/research/svosa/smm/smm_mission.html
|date=1998
|accessdate=22 March 2006
| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20060405183758/http://web.hao.ucar.edu/public/research/svosa/smm/smm_mission.html| archivedate = 5 April 2006}}</ref>

Launched in 1991, Japan's [[Yohkoh]] (''Sunbeam'') satellite observed solar flares at X-ray wavelengths. Mission data allowed scientists to identify several different types of flares, and demonstrated that the corona away from regions of peak activity was much more dynamic and active than had previously been supposed. Yohkoh observed an entire solar cycle but went into standby mode when an [[solar eclipse|annular eclipse]] in 2001 caused it to lose its lock on the Sun. It was destroyed by atmospheric re-entry in 2005.<ref>
{{cite press
|title=Result of Re-entry of the Solar X-ray Observatory "Yohkoh" (SOLAR-A) to the Earth's Atmosphere
|url=http://www.jaxa.jp/press/2005/09/20050913_yohkoh_e.html
|publisher=[[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]]
|date=2005
|accessdate=22 March 2006
}}</ref>

One of the most important solar missions to date has been the [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory]], jointly built by the [[European Space Agency]] and [[NASA]] and launched on 2 December 1995.<ref name=Dwivedi2006/> Originally intended to serve a two-year mission, a mission extension through 2012 was approved in October 2009.<ref name=sohoext>{{cite web| date = 7 October 2009|url = http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=45685|title = Mission extensions approved for science missions|work = ESA Science and Technology|accessdate = 16 February 2010}}</ref> It has proven so useful that a follow-on mission, the [[Solar Dynamics Observatory]] (SDO), was launched in February 2010.<ref name=sdolaunch>{{cite web| date = 11 February 2010|url = http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2010/feb/HQ_10-040_SDO_launch.html|title = NASA Successfully Launches a New Eye on the Sun|work = NASA Press Release Archives|accessdate = 16 February 2010}}</ref> Situated at the [[Lagrangian point]] between Earth and the Sun (at which the gravitational pull from both is equal), SOHO has provided a constant view of the Sun at many wavelengths since its launch.<ref name=Dwivedi2006/> Besides its direct solar observation, SOHO has enabled the discovery of a large number of [[comet]]s, mostly tiny [[sungrazing comet]]s that incinerate as they pass the Sun.<ref>
{{cite web
|title=Sungrazing Comets
|url=http://sungrazer.nrl.navy.mil/
|publisher=[[Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph|LASCO]] ([[US Naval Research Laboratory]])
|accessdate=19 March 2009
}}</ref>
[[File:Giant prominence on the sun erupted.jpg|thumb|300px|A solar prominence erupts in August 2012, as captured by SDO]]

All these satellites have observed the Sun from the plane of the ecliptic, and so have only observed its equatorial regions in detail. The [[Ulysses probe]] was launched in 1990 to study the Sun's polar regions. It first travelled to [[Jupiter]], to "slingshot" into an orbit that would take it far above the plane of the ecliptic. Once Ulysses was in its scheduled orbit, it began observing the solar wind and magnetic field strength at high solar latitudes, finding that the solar wind from high latitudes was moving at about 750 km/s, which was slower than expected, and that there were large magnetic waves emerging from high latitudes that scattered galactic [[cosmic ray]]s.<ref>
{{cite web
|author=[[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|JPL]]/[[California Institute of Technology|CALTECH]]
|title=Ulysses: Primary Mission Results
|url=http://ulysses.jpl.nasa.gov/science/mission_primary.html
|publisher=[[NASA]]
|date=2005
|accessdate=22 March 2006
|deadurl=yes
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060106150819/http://ulysses.jpl.nasa.gov/science/mission_primary.html
|archivedate=6 January 2006
|df=
}}</ref>

Elemental abundances in the photosphere are well known from [[astronomical spectroscopy|spectroscopic]] studies, but the composition of the interior of the Sun is more poorly understood. A [[solar wind]] sample return mission, [[Genesis (spacecraft)|Genesis]], was designed to allow astronomers to directly measure the composition of solar material.<ref>
{{Cite journal
|last=Calaway |first=M.J.
|title=Genesis capturing the Sun: Solar wind irradiation at Lagrange 1
|journal=[[Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B]]
|volume=267 |issue=7 |pages=1101–1108
|date=2009
|doi=10.1016/j.nimb.2009.01.132
|last2=Stansbery
|first2=Eileen K.
|last3=Keller
|first3=Lindsay P.
|ref=harv
|bibcode = 2009NIMPB.267.1101C }}</ref>

The [[STEREO|Solar Terrestrial Relations Observatory]] (STEREO) mission was launched in October 2006. Two identical spacecraft were launched into orbits that cause them to (respectively) pull further ahead of and fall gradually behind Earth. This enables [[stereoscopic]] imaging of the Sun and solar phenomena, such as [[coronal mass ejections]].<ref name=inst>{{cite web| date = 8 March 2006|url = http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/stereo/spacecraft/index.html|title = STEREO Spacecraft & Instruments|work = NASA Missions|accessdate = 30 May 2006}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| title= Sun Earth Connection Coronal and Heliospheric Investigation (SECCHI)|last = Howard | first = R. A.|last2 = Moses | first2 = J. D.| last3 = Socker | first3 = D. G.| last4 = Dere | first4 = K. P.| last5 = Cook | first5 = J. W.|journal=Advances in Space Research|volume= 29|issue= 12|pages=2017–2026|date= 2002| ref= harv |bibcode=2008SSRv..136...67H |doi=10.1007/s11214-008-9341-4
}}</ref>

The [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] has scheduled the launch of a 100 kg satellite named [[Aditya (spacecraft)|Aditya]] for 2017–18. Its main instrument will be a [[coronagraph]] for studying the dynamics of the Solar corona.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Aditya-1-launch-delayed-to-2015-16/articleshow/16326842.cms|title= Aditya 1 launch delayed to 2015–16| first = Srinivas | last = Laxman| last2 = Rhik Kundu | first2 = TNN |date=9 September 2012|work= [[The Times of India]]|publisher= [[Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd.]]}}</ref>

==Observation and effects==
[[File:Anatomy of a Sunset-2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|During certain atmospheric conditions, the Sun becomes clearly visible to the naked eye, and can be observed without stress to the eyes. Click on this photo to see the full cycle of a [[sunset]], as observed from the high plains of the [[Mojave Desert]].]]
[[File:STS-134 EVA4 view to the Russian Orbital Segment.jpg|thumb|right|The Sun, as seen from low Earth orbit overlooking the [[International Space Station]]. This sunlight is not filtered by the lower atmosphere, which blocks much of the solar spectrum]]
The brightness of the Sun can cause pain from looking at it with the [[naked eye]]; however, doing so for brief periods is not hazardous for normal non-dilated eyes.<ref>

{{Cite journal
|first=T.J. |last=White |first2=M.A. |last2=Mainster |first3=P.W. |last3=Wilson
|first4=J.H. |last4=Tips
|title=Chorioretinal temperature increases from solar observation
|journal=[[Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics]]
|volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–17
|date=1971
|doi=10.1007/BF02476660
|ref=harv
}}</ref><ref>
{{Cite journal
|first=M.O.M. |last=Tso |first2=F.G. |last2=La Piana
|title=The Human Fovea After Sungazing
|journal=[[Transactions of the American Academy of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology]]
|date=1975
|volume=79 |pages=OP788–95
|pmid=1209815
|issue=6
|ref=harv
}}</ref> Looking directly at the Sun causes [[phosphene]] visual artifacts and temporary partial blindness. It also delivers about 4 milliwatts of sunlight to the retina, slightly heating it and potentially causing damage in eyes that cannot respond properly to the brightness.<ref>
{{Cite journal
|last=Hope-Ross |first=M.W.
|title=Ultrastructural findings in solar retinopathy
|journal=[[Eye (journal)|Eye]]
|volume=7
|issue=4 |date=1993
|doi=10.1038/eye.1993.7
|pmid=8325420
|last2=Mahon
|first2=GJ
|last3=Gardiner
|first3=TA
|last4=Archer
|first4=DB
|ref=harv
|pages=29–33
}}</ref><ref>
{{Cite journal
|title=Solar Retinopathy from Sun-Gazing Under Influence of LSD
|last=Schatz |first=H. |last2=Mendelblatt |first2=F.
|journal=[[British Journal of Ophthalmology]]
|volume=57 |issue=4 |date=1973
|doi=10.1136/bjo.57.4.270
|pmid=4707624
|ref=harv |pmc=1214879
|pages=270–3
}}</ref> [[ultraviolet|UV]] exposure gradually yellows the lens of the eye over a period of years, and is thought to contribute to the formation of [[cataracts]], but this depends on general exposure to solar UV, and not whether one looks directly at the Sun.<ref>
{{cite web
|last=Chou |first=B.R.
|title=Eye Safety During Solar Eclipses
|url=http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/safety2.html
|date=2005
}} "''While environmental exposure to UV radiation is known to contribute to the accelerated aging of the outer layers of the eye and the development of cataracts, the concern over improper viewing of the Sun during an eclipse is for the development of "eclipse blindness" or retinal burns.''"</ref> Long-duration viewing of the direct Sun with the naked eye can begin to cause UV-induced, sunburn-like lesions on the retina after about 100 seconds, particularly under conditions where the UV light from the Sun is intense and well focused;<ref>
{{Cite journal
|first=W.T. Jr. |last=Ham |first2=H.A. |last2=Mueller |first3=D.H. |last3=Sliney
|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]
|title=Retinal sensitivity to damage from short wavelength light
|volume=260
|issue=5547 |pages=153–155
|date=1976
|doi=10.1038/260153a0
|ref=harv
|bibcode = 1976Natur.260..153H }}</ref><ref>
{{Cite book
|first=W.T. Jr. |last=Ham |first2=H.A. |last2=Mueller |first3=J.J. Jr. |last3=Ruffolo
|first4=D. III|last4=Guerry
|chapter=Solar Retinopathy as a function of Wavelength: its Significance for Protective Eyewear
|title=The Effects of Constant Light on Visual Processes
|editor=Williams, T.P.
|editor2=Baker, B.N.
|publisher=[[Plenum Press]]
|pages=319–346
|date=1980
|isbn=0-306-40328-5
}}</ref> conditions are worsened by young eyes or new lens implants (which admit more UV than aging natural eyes), Sun angles near the zenith, and observing locations at high altitude.

Viewing the Sun through light-concentrating [[optics]] such as [[binoculars]] may result in permanent damage to the retina without an appropriate filter that blocks UV and substantially dims the sunlight. When using an attenuating filter to view the Sun, the viewer is cautioned to use a filter specifically designed for that use. Some improvised filters that pass UV or [[infrared|IR]] rays, can actually harm the eye at high brightness levels.<ref>
{{Cite book
|first=T. |last=Kardos
|title=Earth science
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=xI6EDV_PRr4C&pg=PT102
|page=87
|publisher= [[J.W. Walch]]
|date=2003
|isbn=978-0-8251-4500-1
}}</ref>
[[Herschel wedge]]s, also called Solar Diagonals, are effective and inexpensive for small telescopes. The sunlight that is destined for the eyepiece is reflected from an unsilvered surface of a piece of glass. Only a very small fraction of the incident light is reflected. The rest passes through the glass and leaves the instrument. If the glass breaks because of the heat, no light at all is reflected, making the device fail-safe. Simple filters made of darkened glass allow the full intensity of sunlight to pass through if they break, endangering the observer's eyesight. Unfiltered binoculars can deliver hundreds of times as much energy as using the naked eye, possibly causing immediate damage. It is claimed that even brief glances at the midday Sun through an unfiltered telescope can cause permanent damage.<ref name=Macdonald>{{cite book|last=Macdonald|first=Lee|date=2012|title=How to Observe the Sun Safely|publisher=Springer Science + Business Media|place=New York|chapter=2. Equipment for Observing the Sun|page=17|doi=10.1007/978-1-4614-3825-0_2|quote=NEVER LOOK DIRECTLY AT THE SUN THROUGH ANY FORM OF OPTICAL EQUIPMENT, EVEN FOR AN INSTANT. A brief glimpse of the Sun through a telescope is enough to cause permanent eye damage, or even blindness. Even looking at the Sun with the naked eye for more than a second or two is not safe. Do not assume that it is safe to look at the Sun through a filter, no matter how dark the filter appears to be.}}</ref>


[[File:Doppelsonne Halo Echzell Hessen 12-08-2012.jpg|thumb|left|[[Halo (optical phenomenon)|Halo]] with [[sun dog]]s]]
Partial [[solar eclipse]]s are hazardous to view because the eye's [[pupil]] is not adapted to the unusually high visual contrast: the pupil dilates according to the total amount of light in the field of view, ''not'' by the brightest object in the field. During partial eclipses most sunlight is blocked by the [[Moon]] passing in front of the Sun, but the uncovered parts of the photosphere have the same [[surface brightness]] as during a normal day. In the overall gloom, the pupil expands from ~2 mm to ~6 mm, and each retinal cell exposed to the solar image receives up to ten times more light than it would looking at the non-eclipsed Sun. This can damage or kill those cells, resulting in small permanent blind spots for the viewer.<ref name="Espenak">
{{cite web
|last=Espenak |first=Fred
|title=Eye Safety During Solar Eclipses
|url=http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEhelp/safety.html
|publisher=[[NASA]]
|date=26 April 1996
}}</ref> The hazard is insidious for inexperienced observers and for children, because there is no perception of pain: it is not immediately obvious that one's vision is being destroyed.

[[File:Actual Sunrise.jpeg|300px|thumb|right|A sunrise]]

During [[sunrise]] and [[sunset]], sunlight is attenuated because of [[Rayleigh scattering]] and [[Mie theory|Mie scattering]] from a particularly long passage through Earth's atmosphere,<ref name=Haber2005>{{Cite journal|last=Haber|first=Jorg| last2 = Magnor | first2 = Marcus| last3 = Seidel | first3 = Hans-Peter|title=Physically based Simulation of Twilight Phenomena|date=2005|journal=ACM Transactions on Graphics|volume=24|issue=4|pages=1353–1373|doi=10.1145/1095878.1095884|citeseerx = 10.1.1.67.2567|ref=harv}}</ref> and the Sun is sometimes faint enough to be viewed comfortably with the naked eye or safely with optics (provided there is no risk of bright sunlight suddenly appearing through a break between clouds). Hazy conditions, atmospheric dust, and high humidity contribute to this atmospheric attenuation.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Diurnal asymmetries in global radiation| first = I. G. | last = Piggin|journal=Springer|date=1972|volume=20|issue=1|doi=10.1007/BF02243313|pages=41–48|ref=harv|bibcode = 1972AMGBB..20...41P }}</ref>

An [[optical phenomenon]], known as a [[green flash]], can sometimes be seen shortly after sunset or before sunrise. The flash is caused by light from the Sun just below the horizon being [[refraction|bent]] (usually through a [[temperature inversion]]) towards the observer. Light of shorter wavelengths (violet, blue, green) is bent more than that of longer wavelengths (yellow, orange, red) but the violet and blue light is [[Rayleigh scattering|scattered]] more, leaving light that is perceived as green.<ref>
{{cite web
|title=The Green Flash
|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/greenflash.shtml
|publisher=BBC
|accessdate=10 August 2008
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216135504/http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/greenflash.shtml
|archivedate=16 December 2008
}}</ref>

[[Ultraviolet]] light from the Sun has [[antiseptic]] properties and can be used to sanitize tools and water. It also causes [[sunburn]], and has other biological effects such as the production of [[vitamin D]] and [[sun tanning]]. Ultraviolet light is strongly attenuated by Earth's [[ozone layer]], so that the amount of UV varies greatly with [[latitude]] and has been partially responsible for many biological adaptations, including variations in [[human skin color]] in different regions of the globe.<ref>
{{Cite journal
|last=Barsh |first=G.S.
|title=What Controls Variation in Human Skin Color?
|journal=[[PLoS Biology]]
|volume=1
|issue=1 |page=e7
|date=2003
|pmid=14551921
|pmc=212702
|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0000027
|ref=harv
}}</ref>

==Planetary system==

{{main article |Solar System}}

The Sun has eight known planets. This includes four [[terrestrial planets]] ([[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], [[Venus]], [[Earth]], and [[Mars]]), two [[gas giants]] ([[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]]), and two [[ice giants]] ([[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]]). The Solar System also has at least five [[dwarf planets]], an [[asteroid belt]], numerous [[comets]], and a large number of icy bodies which lie beyond the orbit of Neptune.

==See also==
{{Wikipedia books |1=The Sun}}
{{cmn|30em|
* [[Advanced Composition Explorer]]
* [[Antisolar point]]
* [[List of brightest stars]]
* [[Solar energy]]
* [[Sun dogs]]
* [[Sun path]]
* [[Sun-Earth Day]]
* [[Sunday]]
* [[Sungazing]]
* [[Timeline of the far future]]
}}
{{Portal bar|Star|Solar System}}

==Notes==
{{notes
| notes =
{{efn
| name = heavy elements
| In [[astronomy|astronomical sciences]], the term ''heavy elements'' (or ''metals'') refers to all [[chemical element|elements]] except hydrogen and helium.
}}
{{efn
| name = power production density
| A 50 kg adult human has a volume of about 0.05 m3, which corresponds to 13.8 watts, at the volumetric power of the solar center. This is 285 kcal/day, about 10% of the actual average caloric intake and output for humans in non-stressful conditions.
}}
{{efn
| name = particle density
| Earth's atmosphere near sea level has a particle density of about 2{{e|25}} m−3.
}}
}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|last=Cohen |first=Richard |date=2010 |title=Chasing the Sun: the Epic Story of the Star that Gives us Life |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]]|isbn=1-4000-6875-4}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Thompson |first=M. J. |date=2004 |title=Solar interior: Helioseismology and the Sun's interior |journal=[[Astronomy & Geophysics]] |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=21–25 }}
* [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Solar_activity Solar Activity] [[Scholarpedia]] Hugh Hudson 3(3):3967. {{doi|10.4249/scholarpedia.3967}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Sun}}
* [http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/ Nasa SOHO (Solar & Heliospheric Observatory) satellite]
* [http://www.nso.edu/ National Solar Observatory]
* [http://www.astronomycast.com/astronomy/episode-30-the-sun-spots-and-all/ Astronomy Cast: The Sun]
* [http://www.boston.com/bigpicture/2008/10/the_sun.html A collection of spectacular images of the Sun from various institutions] (''[[The Boston Globe]]'')
* [http://www.acrim.com/ Satellite observations of solar luminosity]
* [http://www.suntrek.org/ Sun|Trek, an educational website about the Sun]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050518081349/http://www.solarphysics.kva.se/ The Swedish 1-meter Solar Telescope, SST]
* [http://alienworlds.glam.ac.uk/sunStructure.html An animated explanation of the structure of the Sun] (University of Glamorgan)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qpMRtvFD8ek&hl=fr Animation – The Future of the Sun]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100315111135/https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2010/12mar_conveyorbelt.htm Solar Conveyor Belt Speeds Up] – NASA – images, link to report on Science
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w-41gAPmUG0&feature=youtube_gdata&ab_channel=NASAGoddard NASA 5-year timelapse video of the Sun]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6tmbeLTHC_0&ab_channel=NASAGoddard Sun in Ultra High Definition] NASA 11/1/2015

{{The Sun|state=uncollapsed}}
{{Sun spacecraft}}
{{Solar System}}
{{Nearest star systems|1}}
{{Astronomy navbar}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:G-type main-sequence stars]]
[[Category:Light sources]]
[[Category:Plasma physics]]
[[Category:Space plasmas]]
[[Category:Stars with proper names]]
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[[Category:Astronomical objects known since antiquity]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
== Jim Vickers rating ==
3/5 Jims

Bagel

2017-08-09T21:22:05Z

81.101.106.71:

{{Other uses}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Infobox prepared food
| name = Bagel
| image = [[File:Bagel-Plain-Alt.jpg|250px]]
| caption = A plain commercially produced bagel (as evidenced by grate marks used in steaming, rather than boiling)
| alternate_name = Bajgiel, beigel, beygl
| country = [[Poland]]
| region = [[Central Europe|Central]] & [[Eastern Europe]], [[North America]], [[Israel]]
| creator =
| course =
| type = Bread
| served =
| main_ingredient = Wheat dough
| variations = [[Montreal-style bagel]], [[pizza bagel]]
| calories =
| other =
}}

A '''bagel''' ({{lang-yi|בײגל}} ''{{transl|yi|beygl}}''; {{lang-pl|bajgiel}}), also spelled '''beigel''',<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/beigel?r=66 Definition: Beigel], retrieved from Dictionary.com website July 11, 2011</ref> is a [[Bread|bread product]] originating in the [[History of Jews in Poland|Jewish communities of Poland]].
It is traditionally shaped by hand into the form of a ring from [[yeast]]ed [[wheat]] dough, roughly hand-sized, that is first [[Boiling#In cooking|boiled]] for a short time in water and then [[Baking|baked]]. The result is a dense, chewy, doughy interior with a browned and sometimes crisp exterior. Bagels are often topped with seeds baked on the outer crust, with the traditional ones being [[poppy]], [[sunflower]] or [[sesame]] seeds. Some may have [[salt]] sprinkled on their surface, and there are different dough types, such as whole-grain or rye.<ref name="Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica (2009) [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/48756/bagel Bagel], retrieved February 24, 2009 from Encyclopædia Britannica Online</ref><ref name="The Book of Jewish Food">Roden, Claudia (November 1996). "The Book of Jewish Food: An Odyssey from Samarkand to New York" Excerpt [http://www.myjewishlearning.com/culture/2/Food/Ashkenazic_Cuisine/Poland_and_Russia/The_Bagel.shtml], retrieved April 7, 2015 from My Jewish Learning</ref>

Though the origins of bagels are somewhat obscure, it is known that they were widely consumed in [[Ashkenazi Jews|eastern European Jewish]] communities from the 17th century. The first known mention of the bagel, in 1610, was in Jewish community ordinances in [[Kraków]], [[Poland]].

Bagels are now a popular bread product in North America, especially in cities with a large [[Jew]]ish population, many with alternative ways of making them. Like other bakery products, bagels are available (fresh or frozen, often in many flavors) in many major supermarkets in those countries.

The basic roll-with-a-hole design is hundreds of years old and has other practical advantages besides providing for a more even cooking and baking of the dough: The hole could be used to thread string or dowels through groups of bagels, allowing for easier handling and transportation and more appealing seller displays.<ref>Nathan, Joan (2008) [http://www.slate.com/articles/life/food/2008/11/a_short_history_of_the_bagel.html A Short History of the Bagel: From ancient Egypt to Lender's] ''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]'', posted Nov. 12, 2008</ref><ref>Columbia University NYC24 New Media Workshop website [http://www.nyc24.org/2002/issue01/story02/page03.asp History of the Bagel: The Hole Story] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822153619/http://www.nyc24.org/2002/issue01/story02/page03.asp |date=2011-08-22 }}, retrieved February 24, 2009.</ref>

== History ==
Contrary to some beliefs, the bagel was not created in the shape of a [[stirrup]] to commemorate the victory of Poland's King [[John III Sobieski]] over the [[Ottoman Empire]] at the [[Battle of Vienna]] in 1683.

Linguist [[Leo Rosten]] wrote in ''The Joys of Yiddish'' about the first known mention of the Polish word ''bajgiel'' derived from the Yiddish word ''bagel'' in the "Community Regulations" of the city of [[Kraków]] in 1610, which stated that the item was given as a gift to women in childbirth.<ref>Filippone, Peggy Trowbridge. [http://homecooking.about.com/od/foodhistory/a/bagelhistory.htm Bagel History: Bagels date back to the 1600s], About.com website, retrieved March 27, 2013.</ref>

In the 16th and first half of the 17th centuries, the ''bajgiel'' became a staple of [[Polish cuisine]]<ref>Altschuler, Glenn C. (2008) [http://www.forward.com/articles/14502 Three Centuries of Bagels], a book review of:'' 'The Bagel: The Surprising History of a Modest Bread', by Balinska, Maria, Yale University Press, 2008'', Jewish Daily Press website, published on-line November 05, 2008 in the issue of November 14, 2008</ref> and a staple of the Slavic diet generally.<ref>[[Zinovy Zinik]],'Freelance,' in [[Times Literary Supplement]], Nov., 18, 2011 p.16.</ref> Its name derives from the Yiddish word ''beygal'' from the German dialect word ''beugel'', meaning "ring" or "bracelet".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Davidson|first1=Alan|title=Oxford Companion to Food|date=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, England|isbn=9780192806819|page=49|edition=2nd}}</ref>

Variants of the word ''beugal'' are used in [[Yiddish]] and in [[Austrian German]] to refer to a similar form of sweet-filled pastry (''Mohnbeugel'' (with poppy seeds) and ''Nussbeugel'' (with ground nuts), or in southern German dialects (where ''beuge'' refers to a pile, e.g., ''holzbeuge'' "woodpile"). According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, 'bagel' derives from the transliteration of the Yiddish'' 'beygl','' which came from the [[Middle High German]] 'böugel' or ring, which itself came from 'bouc' (ring) in [[Old High German]], similar to the [[Old English]] ''bēag'' "ring" and ''būgan'' "to bend, bow".<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bagel Merriam-Webster's Dictionary definition of 'bagel'], Merriam-Webster Inc. online, 2009, retrieved 2009-04-24</ref> Similarly, another [[etymology]] in the Webster's New World College Dictionary says that the Middle High German form was derived from the [[Austrian German]] ''beugel'', a kind of [[croissant]], and was similar to the German ''bügel'', a stirrup or ring.<ref>[http://www.yourdictionary.com/bagel Webster's New World College Dictionary definition of 'bagel'], Wiley Publishing Inc., Cleveland, 2005, retrieved 2009-04-24;</ref>

In the [[Brick Lane]] district and surrounding area of [[London]], England, bagels (or, as locally spelled, "beigels") have been sold since the middle of the 19th century. They were often displayed in the windows of bakeries on vertical wooden dowels, up to a metre in length, on racks.

[[File:*this* is a bagel.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bagels with [[cream cheese]] and [[lox|lox (cured salmon)]] are considered a traditional part of [[American Jewish cuisine]] (colloquially known as "lox and a ''schmear''").]]
Bagels were brought to the [[United States]] by immigrant Polish Jews, with a thriving business developing in [[New York City]] that was controlled for decades by [[Bagel Bakers Local 338]], They had contracts with nearly all bagel bakeries in and around the city for its workers, who prepared all their bagels by hand.

The bagel came into more general use throughout [[North America]] in the last quarter of the 20th century with automation. [[Daniel Thompson (inventor)|Daniel Thompson]] started work on the first commercially viable bagel machine in 1958; bagel baker [[Lender's Bagels|Harry Lender]], his son, [[Murray Lender]], and [[Florence Sender]] leased this technology and pioneered automated production and distribution of frozen bagels in the 1960s.<ref>Klagsburn, Francine. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130114133636/http://www.thejewishweek.com/viewArticle/c55_a16243/Editorial__Opinion/Opinion.html "Chewing Over The Bagel’s Story"], ''[[The Jewish Week]]'', July 8, 2009. Accessed July 15, 2009.</ref><ref name=nytimes>{{cite news|first=Dennis|last=Hevesi|title=Murray Lender, Who Gave All America a Taste of Bagels, Dies at 81 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/23/business/murray-lender-dies-at-81-gave-all-america-a-taste-of-bagels.html |work=[[New York Times]] |publisher= |date=2012-03-22 |accessdate=2012-04-19}}</ref><ref name=wp>{{cite news|first=Lily|last=Rothman|title=Murray Lender, the man who brought bagels to the masses |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/murray-lender-the-man-who-brought-bagels-to-the-masses/2012/03/23/gIQACt47VS_story.html |work=[[Washington Post]] |publisher= |date=2012-03-23 |accessdate=2012-04-19}}</ref> Murray also invented pre-slicing the bagel.<ref>{{cite news |title=Murray Lender |url=http://www.economist.com/node/21552989 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=21 April 2012 |accessdate=30 August 2012}}</ref>

Around 1900, the "bagel brunch" became popular in New York City.<ref name="Adamson Segan 2008 p. 94"/> The bagel brunch consists of a bagel topped with [[lox]], cream cheese, [[caper]]s, tomato, and red onion.<ref name="Adamson Segan 2008 p. 94"/> This and similar combinations of toppings have remained associated with bagels into the 21st century in the US.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Parker |first1=Milton |last2=Freeman |first2=Allyn |title=How to Feed Friends and Influence People: The Carnegie Deli: A Giant Sandwich, a Little Deli, a Huge Success |date=2005 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Hoboken, N.J. |isbn=0471710350 |page=97 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vE6I74CXk4kC&pg=PA97&dq=bagel+lox+cream+cheese+capers+tomato+onion&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiLhIT2m-rJAhUGeD4KHTiJDtEQ6AEILzAA#v=onepage&q=bagel%20lox%20cream%20cheese%20capers%20tomato%20onion&f=false |accessdate=2015-12-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Clark |first1=Melissa |title=Setting Out the Bagels and Lox |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/25/dining/setting-out-the-bagels-and-lox.html |accessdate=2015-12-20 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=2013-09-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Warner |first1=Justin |title=The Laws of Cooking* *and How to Break Them |date=2015 |publisher=Flatiron Books |location=New York |isbn=9781250065131 |page=83|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gQaJCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83&dq=bagel+lox+cream+cheese+capers+tomato+onion&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiLhIT2m-rJAhUGeD4KHTiJDtEQ6AEINjAB#v=onepage&q=bagel%20lox%20cream%20cheese%20capers%20tomato%20onion&f=false |accessdate=2015-12-20}}</ref>

In [[Japan]], the first kosher bagels were brought by {{Interlanguage link multi|BagelK|ja|3=ベーグルK}} from New York in 1989. BagelK created green tea, chocolate, maple-nut, and banana-nut flavors for the market in Japan. There are three million bagels exported from the U.S. annually, and it has a 4%-of-duty classification of Japan in 2000. Some Japanese bagels, such as those sold by {{Interlanguage link multi|BAGEL & BAGEL|ja|3=BAGEL & BAGEL}}, are soft and/or sweet; others, such as [[Einstein Bros. Bagels|Einstein Bro. bagels]] sold by [[Costco]] in Japan, are the same as in the U.S.

== Preparation and preservation ==
[[File:MontrealBagels.jpg|thumb|left|Saturday morning bagel queue at [[St-Viateur Bagel]], Montreal, Quebec]]
At its most basic, traditional bagel dough contains wheat flour (without [[Cereal germ|germ]] or [[bran]]), salt, water, and [[Leavening agent|yeast leavening]]. [[Bread flour#Types of Flour|Bread flour]] or other high [[gluten]] flours are preferred to create the firm, dense but spongy bagel shape and chewy texture.<ref name="Britannica" /> Most bagel recipes call for the addition of a sweetener to the dough, often [[barley malt]] (syrup or crystals), honey, [[high fructose corn syrup]], [[sugar]], with or without eggs, milk or butter.<ref name="Britannica" /> Leavening can be accomplished using a [[sourdough]] technique or a commercially produced yeast.

Bagels are traditionally made by:
* mixing and kneading the ingredients to form the dough
* shaping the dough into the traditional bagel shape, round with a hole in the middle, from a long thin piece of dough
* [[Proofing (baking technique)|proofing]] the bagels for at least 12 hours at low temperature (40–50 °F = 4.5–10 °C)
* boiling each bagel in water that may contain additives such as [[lye]], [[baking soda]], [[barley malt syrup]], or [[honey]]
* baking at between 175 °C and 315 °C (about 350–600 °F)

It is this unusual production method which is said to give bagels their distinctive taste, chewy texture, and shiny appearance.

In recent years, a variant has emerged, producing what is sometimes called the steam bagel. To make a steam bagel, the boiling is skipped, and the bagels are instead baked in an oven equipped with a steam injection system.<ref>Reinhart, P., ''The Bread Baker's Apprentice''. Ten Speed Press, 2001, p. 115.</ref> In commercial bagel production, the steam bagel process requires less labor, since bagels need only be directly handled once, at the shaping stage. Thereafter, the bagels need never be removed from their pans as they are refrigerated and then steam-baked. The steam bagel is not considered to be a genuine bagel by purists, as it results in a fluffier, softer, less chewy product more akin to a [[Bread roll|finger roll]] that happens to be shaped like a bagel. Steam bagels are considered lower quality by purists as the dough used is intentionally more [[base (chemistry)|alkaline]]. The increase in [[pH]] is to aid browning, since the steam injection process uses neutral water steam instead of an alkaline solution bath.

If not consumed immediately, there are storing techniques that can help to keep the bagel moist and fresh. First, cool bagels in a paper bag; wrap the paper bag in a plastic bag (attempting to rid the bags of as much air as possible without squishing the bagels); then freeze for up to six months.<ref>Jonathan, Croswell. [http://www.livestrong.com/article/510977-how-to-keep-a-bagel-moist/ How to Keep a Bagel Moist], August 8, 2011.</ref>

== Quality ==
According to a 2012 ''[[Consumer Reports]]'' article, the ideal bagel should have a slightly crispy crust, a distinct "pull" when a piece is separated from the whole by biting or pinching, a chewy inside, and the flavor of bread freshly baked. The taste may be complemented by additions cooked on the bagel, such as onion, garlic, sesame seeds, or poppy seeds. The appeal of a bagel may change upon being toasted. Toasting can have the effect of bringing or removing desirable chewiness, softening the crust, and moderating off-flavors.<ref name="Consumer Reports 2012">{{cite web |url= http://consumerreports.org/cro/bagels/buying-guide.htm |title=Top Bagels – Bagel Buying Guide |work=[[Consumer Reports]]|date=July 2012}}</ref>

A typical bagel has 260–350 calories, 1.0–4.5 grams of fat, 330–660 milligrams of sodium, and 2–5 grams of fiber. Gluten-free bagels have much more fat, often 9 grams, because of the presence in the dough of ingredients that supplant wheat flour in the original.<ref name="Consumer Reports 2012"/>

== Varieties ==
{{See also|Montreal-style bagel}}
[[File:Bagels-Montreal-REAL.jpg|thumb|250px|Three [[Montreal-style bagel]]s: one [[poppyseed|poppy]] and two [[sesame seed|sesame]] bagels]]
Traditional bagels in North America can be either [[Montreal-style bagel]] or New York-style,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/05/02/montreal-bagels_n_5247880.html|title=Bagel Wars: Montreal vs. New York-Style Bagels|publisher=Huffington Post|author=Spiegel, Alison|date=May 6, 2014|accessdate=January 17, 2015}}</ref> although both styles reflect traditional methods used in Eastern Europe before bagels' importation to North America. The distinction is less rigid than often maintained.

The Montreal-style bagel contains [[malt]] and sugar with no salt; it is boiled in honey-sweetened water before baking in a wood-fired oven. It is predominantly of the [[sesame]] "white" seeds variety (bagels in Toronto are similar to those made in New York in that they are less sweet, generally are coated with poppy seeds and are baked in a standard oven).

In distinction, the New York bagel contains salt and malt and is boiled in water before baking in a standard oven. The resulting bagel is puffy with a moist crust. The Montreal bagel is smaller (though with a larger hole), crunchier, and sweeter.<ref name="7days">{{cite web | url=http://www.7dvt.com/2006/hole-truth | title=The Hole Truth: Vermont's Bagel Bakers Answer The Roll Call | publisher=Seven Days | date=October 17, 2006 | accessdate=June 9, 2011 | author=Horowitz, Ruth}}</ref> There is a belief that New York bagels are the best due to the quality of the local water.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bagels, water and an urban legend|url=http://eatocracy.cnn.com/2011/09/29/bagels-water-and-an-urban-legend/|website=CNN|publisher=CNN|accessdate=18 May 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151114020138/http://eatocracy.cnn.com/2011/09/29/bagels-water-and-an-urban-legend/|archivedate=14 November 2015}}</ref> However, this belief is heavily debated. For instance, [[Davidovich Bagels]], made in NYC, are a recognized wholesale manufacturer of bagels that use these traditional bagel-making techniques (associated here with the Montreal-style bagel), including kettle boiling and plank baking in a wood fired oven.<ref>{{cite web|last=Arumugam|first=Nadia|title=Taste Test: Dunkin' Donuts' "Fake" Artisan Bagels vs Real Artisan Bagels|url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/nadiaarumugam/2012/04/26/taste-test-dunkin-donuts-fake-artisan-bagels-vs-real-artisan-bagels/|work=FORBES|publisher=Forbes|accessdate=January 1, 2014}}</ref>

As suggested above, other bagel styles can be found elsewhere, akin to the way in which families in a given culture employ a variety of methods when cooking an indigenous dish. Thus, Chicago-style bagels are baked or baked with steam.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hometownbagel.com/|title=Hometown Bagel, Inc.|accessdate=2012-04-20}}</ref> The traditional London bagel (or beigel as it is spelled) is harder and has a coarser texture with air bubbles.

Poppy seeds are sometimes referred to by their Yiddish name, spelled either ''mun'' or ''mon'' (written מאָן), which comes from the German word for poppy, ''Mohn'', as used in ''Mohnbrötchen''. American chef [[John Mitzewich]] suggests a recipe for what he calls “San Francisco-Style Bagels”. His recipe yields bagels flatter than New York-style bagels, characterized by a rough-textured crust.<ref name="ChefJohn1">{{cite web | last =Mitzewich | first =John | authorlink =John Mitzewich | title =San Francisco-Style Bagels – Taking Things to a Hole New Level | work =Food Wishes | publisher =[[Blogger (service)|Blogger]] | date =August 6, 2012 | url =http://foodwishes.blogspot.com/2012/08/san-francisco-style-bagels-taking.html |accessdate =August 7, 2012}}</ref> An [[everything bagel]] may include such toppings as poppy seeds, sesame seeds, onion flakes, caraway seeds, garlic flakes, pretzel salt, and pepper.{{clear}}

== Non-traditional doughs and types ==

While normally and traditionally made of [[yeast]]ed [[wheat]], in the late 20th century variations on the bagel flourished. Non-traditional versions that change the dough recipe include [[pumpernickel]], [[rye]], [[sourdough]], [[bran]], [[whole wheat]], and [[Multigrain bread|multigrain]]. Other variations change the flavor of the dough, often using [[blueberry]], [[salt]], [[onion]], [[garlic]], [[Egg (food)|egg]], [[cinnamon]], [[raisin]], [[chocolate chip]], [[cheese]], or some combination of the above. Green bagels are sometimes created for [[St. Patrick's Day]].

Many corporate chains now offer bagels in such flavors as chocolate chip and French toast.

Sandwich bagels have been popularized since the late 1990s by specialty shops such as [[Bruegger's]] and [[Einstein Brothers]], and fast food restaurants such as [[McDonald's]].

Breakfast bagels, a softer, sweeter variety usually sold in fruity or sweet flavors (e.g., cherry, strawberry, cheese, blueberry, cinnamon-raisin, chocolate chip, maple syrup, banana and nuts) are common at large supermarket chains. These are usually sold sliced and are intended to be prepared in a toaster.

A flat bagel, known as a 'flagel', can be found in a few locations in and around New York City, Long Island, and Toronto. According to a review attributed to New York's ''[[Village Voice]]'' food critic Robert Seitsema, the flagel was first created by [[Brooklyn|Brooklyn's]] 'Tasty Bagels' deli in the early 1990s.<ref>Browne, Alaina [http://newyork.seriouseats.com/2008/09/flat-bagels-flagels-davids-gramercy-nyc.html Flagel = Flat Bagel (review)], retrieved 2009-04-24 from SeriousEats.com website;</ref>

The New York Style Snacks brand has developed the baked snacks referred to as Bagel Crisps and Bagel Chips, which are marketed as a representation of the "authentic taste" of New York City bakery bagels.<ref>[http://www.newyorkstyle.com/products/ New York Style Baked Snacks]</ref>

Though the original bagel has a fairly well-defined recipe and method of production, there is no legal [[standard of identity]] for bagels in the United States. Bakers are free to call any bread torus a bagel, even those that deviate wildly from the original formulation.

== Large scale commercial sales ==

=== United States supermarket sales ===

==== 2008 ====
According to the [[American Institute of Baking]] (AIB), 2008 supermarket sales (52-week period ending January 27, 2009) of the top eight leading commercial fresh (not frozen) bagel brands in the United States:
* totaled to US$430,185,378 based on 142,669,901 package unit sales.<ref name="AIB">Baking Management (2008) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140307171744/https://www.aibonline.org/resources/statistics/2008bagels.htm AIB website data: Bagels 2008], from ''Baking Management'', p.10, March 2009, Statistics from ''Information Resources'', retrieved 2009-03-23 from ''American Institute of Baking website: Bagels 2008'' updated to March 10, 2009;</ref>
* the top eight leading brand names for the above were (by order of sales): [[Thomas']], [[Sara Lee Corporation|Sara Lee]], (private label brands) [[Pepperidge Farm]], Thomas Mini Squares, [[Lender's Bagels]] (Pinnacle Foods), Weight Watchers and The Alternative Bagel (Western Bagel).<ref name="AIB"/>

Further, AIB-provided statistics for the 52-week period ending May 18, 2008, for refrigerated/frozen supermarket bagel sales for the top 10 brand names totaled US$50,737,860, based on 36,719,977 unit package sales.<ref name="AIB2">Baking Management (2008) [https://web.archive.org/web/20140307171744/https://www.aibonline.org/resources/statistics/2008bagels.htm AIB website data: Bagels 2008], from ''Redbook, July 2008, p.20, Statistics from ''Information Resources'', retrieved 2009-03-23 from ''American Institute of Baking website: Bagels 2008'' updated to March 10, 2009</ref> Price per package was $3.02 for fresh, $1.38 for frozen.

==== 2012 ====
The AIB reported US$626.9 million fresh bagel US supermarket sales (excluding Wal-Mart) for the 52 weeks ending 11 April 2012.<ref name="AIBO">[https://www.aibonline.org/ AIB International], [https://web.archive.org/web/20140307171733/https://www.aibonline.org/resources/statistics/2012bagels.htm Bagels 2012]. Data obtained from SymphonyIRI Group from scanner data from Supermarkets, Drugstores, and Mass Merchandisers (does not includeWal-Mart).</ref> Fresh/frozen supermarket sales (excluding Wal-Mart) for the 52 weeks ending 13 May 2012 was US$592.7 million.<ref name="AIBO"/> The average price for a bag of fresh bagels was $3.27; for frozen it was $1.23.

== Similar breads ==
[[File:Bublik in Kiev with Sesame.JPG|thumb|Ukrainian ''bublik'']]
The ''[[bublik]]'' in [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]] and [[Belarus]], and the ''obwarzanek'' (in particular ''[[obwarzanek krakowski]]'') in Poland are essentially larger bagels with a wider hole. Similar to bagels, these breads are usually topped with sesame and poppy seeds. Other ring-shaped breads known among [[East Slavs]] are ''[[baranki]]'' (smaller and drier) and ''[[sushki]]'' (even smaller and drier). In [[Lithuania]], similar breads are called ''riestainiai'' and sometimes by their Slavic name ''baronkos''.

[[File:Vesirinkelit - 2.jpg|thumb|left|''Vesirinkeli'' from Finland]]
In [[Finland]], ''[[vesirinkeli]]'' are small rings of yeast-leavened wheat bread. They are placed in salted boiling water before being baked. They are often eaten for breakfast toasted and buttered. They are available in many varieties (sweet or savoury) in supermarkets.

German ''[[pretzel]]s'' (which are soft and formed into rings or long rectangular shapes) are somewhat similar to bagels in texture, the main exceptions being the shape and the [[Lye|alkaline water]] bath that makes the surface dark and glossy.

In [[Romania]], ''[[covrigi]]'' are topped with poppy, sesame seeds or large salt grains, especially in the central area of the country, and the recipe does not contain any added sweetener. They are usually shaped like pretzels rather than bagels.

In some parts of [[Austria]], ring-shaped pastries called ''Beugel'' are sold in the weeks before [[Easter]]. Like a bagel, the yeasted wheat dough, usually flavored with [[caraway]], is boiled before baking. However, the ''Beugel'' is crispy and can be stored for weeks. Traditionally it has to be torn apart by two individuals before eating.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}

[[File:Guangzhou-Nur-Bostani-Restaurant-pseudo-bagel-0504.jpg|thumb|right|A ''girdeh'' (the hole does not go all the way through) from a Muslim restaurant in [[Guangzhou]], China]]

In [[Turkey]], a salty and fattier form is called ''açma''. However, the ring-shaped [[simit]], is sometimes marketed as Turkish bagel. Archival sources show that the ''simit'' has been produced in Istanbul since 1525.<ref>Sahillioğlu, Halil. “Osmanlılarda Narh Müessesesi ve 1525 Yılı Sonunda İstanbul’da Fiyatlar”. Belgelerle Türk Tarihi 2 [The Narh Institution in the Ottoman Empire and the Prices in Istanbul in Late 1525. Documents in Turkish History 2] (Kasım 1967): 56</ref> Based on Üsküdar court records (Şer’iyye Sicili) dated 1593,<ref>Ünsal, Artun. Susamlı Halkanın Tılsımı.[The Secret of the Ring with Sesames] İstanbul: YKY, 2010: 45</ref> the weight and price of simit was standardized for the first time. Famous 17th-century traveler [[Evliya Çelebi]] wrote that there were 70 simit bakeries in Istanbul during the 1630s<ref>''Evliya Çelebi'' Seyahatnâmesi Kitap I. [The Seyahatname Book I] (Prof. Dr. Robert Dankoff, Seyit Ali Kahraman, Yücel Dağlı). İstanbul: YKY, 2006: 231</ref> Jean Brindesi's early 19th-century oil paintings about Istanbul daily life show simit sellers on the streets.<ref>Jean Brindesi, Illustrations de Elbicei atika. Musée des anciens costumes turcs d'Istanbul, Paris: Lemercier, [1855]</ref> [[Warwick Goble]] made an illustration of the simit sellers of Istanbul in 1906.<ref>Alexander Van Millingen, Constantinople (London: Black, 1906) https://www.gutenberg.org/files/39620/39620-h/39620-h.htm</ref> Surprisingly, simit is very similar to the twisted sesame-sprinkled bagels pictured being sold in early 20th century Poland. ''Simit'' are also sold on the street in baskets or carts, like bagels were then.

The [[Uyghur people|Uyghurs]] of [[Xinjiang]], [[China]] enjoy a form of bagel known as ''girdeh nan'' (from [[Persian language|Persian]], meaning round bread), which is a type of [[naan|nan]], the bread eaten in Xinjiang.<ref>Allen, Thomas B. (March 1996). Xinjiang. ''National Geographic Magazine'', p. 36–37</ref>

== Cultural references ==
"Bagel" is also a [[Yeshivish (dialect)|Yeshivish]] term for sleeping 12 hours straight—e.g., "I slept a bagel last night." There are various opinions as to the origins of this term. It may be a reference to the fact that bagel dough has to "rest" for at least 12 hours between mixing and baking<ref>Balinska 2008. pp.4–5.</ref> or simply to the fact that the hour hand on a clock traces a bagel shape over the course of 12 hours.

In tennis, a "bagel" refers to a player winning a set 6–0; winning a match 6–0, 6–0, 6–0 is called a "triple bagel".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Bud|last2=Hollander|first2=Zander|title=Bud Collins' Modern Encyclopedia of Tennis|date=1994|publisher=Visible Ink Press|isbn=978-0-8103-9443-8|pages=484–485|edition=2, illustrated|ref=collins}}</ref>

''[[Bublitchki (song)|Bublitchki]]'' or ''bagelach'' is a title of a famous Russian and Yiddish song written in [[Odessa]] in the 1920s. [[The Barry Sisters]] together with the [[Ziggy Elman|Ziggy Elman Orchestra]] made it popular in the US in 1939. Until today it belongs to the repertoire of [[klezmer]], [[jazz]] and pop musicians.

== See also ==
{{Div col|cols=2}}
* [[Appetizing store]] {{nb10}}
* [[Bagel and cream cheese]]
* [[Bagel Bites]]
* [[Bialy (pastry)|Bialy]]
* [[Delicatessen|Deli]]
* [[Doughnut]]
* [[Ka'ak]]
* [[Lender's Bagels]]
* [[Pletzel]]

{{Div col end}}

== References ==

===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="Adamson Segan 2008 p. 94">{{cite book | last=Adamson | first=M.W. | last2=Segan | first2=F. | title=Entertaining from Ancient Rome to the Super Bowl: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia | publisher=ABC-CLIO | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-313-08689-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPDIx6WWuOQC&pg=PA94 | page=94}}</ref>
}}

===Bibliography===
* Balinska, Maria (2008). ''The Bagel: The Surprising History of a Modest Bread'', Yale University Press, November 2008, {{ISBN|0-300-11229-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-300-11229-0}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Bagels}}
* [http://vimeo.com/32267253 Bagels Return To the Lower East Side] (origin of American bagels)
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A223886 The Bagel's History] on [[H2G2]]
* Einstein, Brothers. [http://www.kitchenproject.com/history/bagels/bagels.htm The History of Bagels], October 20, 2009
* Nathan, Joan. [http://www.slate.com/id/2204140/ A Short History of Bagels], Slate, November 12, 2008
* Weinzweig, Ari. [https://www.theatlantic.com/food/archive/2009/03/the-secret-history-of-bagels/6928/ The Secret History of Bagels], The Atlantic, March 26, 2009

{{Jewish bread}}
{{Ring and knot-shaped breads}}
{{Street food}}

[[Category:Bagels|*]]
[[Category:Jewish breads]]
[[Category:Polish cuisine]]
[[Category:Yeast breads]]
[[Category:Seeded breads]]
[[Category:Snack foods]]
[[Category:Street food]]
[[Category:Polish inventions]]
== Jim Vickers rating ==
5/5 Jims

Metalworks

2017-08-09T21:19:07Z

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Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower temperature metal-joining techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do not melt the base metal. In addition to melting the base metal, a filler material is typically added to the joint to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to form a joint that is usually stronger than the base material. Pressure may also be used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce a weld.

Although less common, there are also solid state welding processes such as friction welding or shielded active gas welding in which metal does not melt.

Some of the best known welding methods include:

Oxy-fuel welding – also known as oxyacetylene welding or oxy welding, uses fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals.
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) – also known as "stick welding or electric welding", uses an electrode that has flux around it to protect the weld puddle. The electrode holder holds the electrode as it slowly melts away. Slag protects the weld puddle from atmospheric contamination.
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) – also known as TIG (tungsten, inert gas), uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas such as argon or helium.
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) – commonly termed MIG (metal, inert gas), uses a wire feeding gun that feeds wire at an adjustable speed and flows an argon-based shielding gas or a mix of argon and carbon dioxide (CO2) over the weld puddle to protect it from atmospheric contamination.
Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) – almost identical to MIG welding except it uses a special tubular wire filled with flux; it can be used with or without shielding gas, depending on the filler.
Submerged arc welding (SAW) – uses an automatically fed consumable electrode and a blanket of granular fusible flux. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from atmospheric contamination by being "submerged" under the flux blanket.
Electroslag welding (ESW) – a highly productive, single pass welding process for thicker materials between 1 inch (25 mm) and 12 inches (300 mm) in a vertical or close to vertical position.
Electric resistance welding (ERW) – a welding process that produces coalescence of laying surfaces where heat to form the weld is generated by the electrical resistance of the material. In general, an efficient method, but limited to relatively thin material.
Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding may be performed in many different environments, including in open air, under water, and in outer space. Welding is a hazardous undertaking and precautions are required to avoid burns, electric shock, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes, and exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation.

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge welding, which blacksmiths had used for centuries to join iron and steel by heating and hammering. Arc welding and oxyfuel welding were among the first processes to develop late in the century, and electric resistance welding followed soon after. Welding technology advanced quickly during the early 20th century as the world wars drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Following the wars, several modern welding techniques were developed, including manual methods like SMAW, now one of the most popular welding methods, as well as semi-automatic and automatic processes such as GMAW, SAW, FCAW and ESW. Developments continued with the invention of laser beam welding, electron beam welding, magnetic pulse welding (MPW), and friction stir welding in the latter half of the century. Today, the science continues to advance. Robot welding is commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new welding methods and gain greater understanding of weld quality.

==History==
[[Image:QtubIronPillar.JPG|thumb|The iron pillar of Delhi]]

The history of joining metals goes back several millennia. Called [[forge welding]], the earliest examples come from the [[Bronze Age|Bronze]] and [[Iron Age]]s in [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]]. The ancient Greek historian [[Herodotus]] states in ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|The Histories]]'' of the 5th century BC that Glaucus of Chios "was the man who single-handedly invented iron welding".<ref>Herodotus. ''The Histories''. Trans. R. Waterfield. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Book One, 25.</ref> Welding was used in the construction of the [[Iron pillar of Delhi]], erected in [[Delhi]], India about 310 AD and weighing 5.4 [[metric tons]].<ref>{{harvnb|Cary|Helzer|2005|p=4}}</ref>

The [[Middle Ages]] brought advances in forge welding, in which blacksmiths pounded heated metal repeatedly until bonding occurred. In 1540, [[Vannoccio Biringuccio]] published ''[[De la pirotechnia]]'', which includes descriptions of the forging operation.<ref name="LE111">Lincoln Electric, p. 1.1-1</ref> [[Renaissance]] craftsmen were skilled in the process, and the industry continued to grow during the following centuries.<ref name="LE111" />

In 1800, [[Humphry Davy|Sir Humphry Davy]] discovered the short-pulse electrical arc and presented his results in 1801.<ref>Lincoln Electric, The Procedure Handbook Of Arc Welding 14th ed., page 1.1{{hyphen}}1</ref><ref name="Ayrton">Hertha Ayrton. ''The Electric Arc'', pp. [https://archive.org/stream/electricarc00ayrtrich#page/20/mode/2up 20], [https://archive.org/stream/electricarc00ayrtrich#page/24/mode/2up 24] and [https://archive.org/stream/electricarc00ayrtrich#page/94/mode/2up 94]. D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1902.</ref><ref name="anders">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1109/TPS.2003.815477 |title=Tracking down the origin of arc plasma science-II. early continuous discharges |year=2003 |author=A. Anders |journal=IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science |volume=31 |pages=1060–9 |issue=5}}</ref> In 1802, Russian scientist [[Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov|Vasily Petrov]] created the continuous electric arc,<ref name="anders" /><ref>[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]], Article ''"Дуговой разряд"'' (eng. ''electric arc'')</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Lazarev |first=P.P. |title=Historical essay on the 200 years of the development of natural sciences in Russia |journal=[[Physics-Uspekhi]] |volume=42 |issue=1247 |pages=1351–1361 |date=December 1999 |url=http://ufn.ru/ufn99/ufn99_12/Russian/r9912h.pdf |format=Russian |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5lmBpznUV?url=http://ufn.ru/ufn99/ufn99_12/Russian/r9912h.pdf |archivedate=2009-12-04 |doi=10.1070/PU1999v042n12ABEH000750 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> and subsequently published "News of Galvanic-Voltaic Experiments" in 1803, in which he described experiments carried out in 1802. Of great importance in this work was the description of a stable arc discharge and the indication of its possible use for many applications, one being melting metals.<ref name="biog1">{{cite web |title= Encyclopedia.com. Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830903379.html |date=2008 |work= |publisher= Charles Scribner's Sons |accessdate=9 October 2014}}</ref> In 1808, Davy, who was unaware of Petrov's work, rediscovered the continuous electric arc.<ref name="Ayrton" /><ref name="anders" /> In 1881–82 inventors [[Nikolai Benardos]] (Russian) and [[Stanisław Olszewski]] (Polish)<ref>Nikołaj Benardos, Stanisław Olszewski, "Process of and apparatus for working metals by the direct application of the electric current" patent nr 363 320, Washington, United States Patent Office, 17 may 1887.</ref> created the first electric arc welding method known as [[carbon arc welding]] using carbon electrodes. The advances in arc welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in the late 1800s by a Russian, [[Nikolai Slavyanov]] (1888), and an American, [[C. L. Coffin]] (1890). Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger released a coated metal electrode in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], which gave a more stable arc. In 1905, Russian scientist Vladimir Mitkevich proposed using a three-phase electric arc for welding. In 1919, [[alternating current]] welding was invented by C. J. Holslag but did not become popular for another decade.<ref>{{harvnb|Cary|Helzer|2005|pp=5–6}}</ref>

Resistance welding was also developed during the final decades of the 19th century, with the first patents going to [[Elihu Thomson]] in 1885, who produced further advances over the next 15 years. [[Thermite welding]] was invented in 1893, and around that time another process, oxyfuel welding, became well established. [[Acetylene]] was discovered in 1836 by [[Edmund Davy]], but its use was not practical in welding until about 1900, when a suitable [[gas welding#Torch|torch]] was developed.<ref>{{harvnb|Cary|Helzer|2005|p=6}}</ref> At first, oxyfuel welding was one of the more popular welding methods due to its portability and relatively low cost. As the 20th century progressed, however, it fell out of favor for industrial applications. It was largely replaced with arc welding, as advances in metal coverings (known as [[flux (metallurgy)|flux]]) were made.<ref name="Weman26">Weman, p. 26</ref> Flux covering the electrode primarily shields the base material from impurities, but also stabilizes the arc and can add alloying components to the weld metal.<ref name='ESAB'>{{cite web |title=Lesson 3: Covered Electrodes for Welding Mild Steels |url=http://www.esabna.com/euweb/awtc/lesson3_6.htm |date= |work= |publisher= |accessdate=18 May 2017}}</ref>

[[Image:Maurzyce 2009 (0).jpg|thumb|Bridge of Maurzyce]]
World War I caused a major surge in the use of welding processes, with the various military powers attempting to determine which of the several new welding processes would be best. The British primarily used arc welding, even constructing a ship, the "Fullagar" with an entirely welded hull.<ref>[http://www.weldinghistory.org/whfolder/folder/wh1900.html A History of Welding]. weldinghistory.org</ref><ref>[http://www.gracesguide.co.uk/The_Engineer ''The Engineer''] (6 February 1920) p. 142</ref> Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during the war as well, as some German airplane fuselages were constructed using the process.<ref>Lincoln Electric, p. 1.1–5</ref> Also noteworthy is the first welded road bridge in the world, the [[Maurzyce Bridge]] designed by [[Stefan Bryła]] of the [[Lwów University of Technology]] in 1927, and built across the river [[Słudwia River|Słudwia]] near [[Łowicz]], Poland in 1928.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.weldinghistory.org/whistoryfolder/welding/wh_1900-1950.html |title=Welding Timeline 1900–1950 |last=Sapp |first=Mark E. |date=February 22, 2008 |publisher=WeldingHistory.org |accessdate=2008-04-29 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080803060938/http://www.weldinghistory.org/whistoryfolder/welding/wh_1900-1950.html |archivedate=August 3, 2008 }}</ref>
[[File:Acetylene welding on cylinder water jacket., 1918 - NARA - 530779.tif|thumb|left|170px|Acetylene welding on cylinder water jacket, US Army 1918]]
During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding technology, including the introduction of automatic welding in 1920, in which electrode wire was fed continuously. [[Shielding gas]] became a subject receiving much attention, as scientists attempted to protect welds from the effects of oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the primary problems, and the solutions that developed included the use of [[hydrogen]], [[argon]], and [[helium]] as welding atmospheres.<ref>{{harvnb|Cary|Helzer|2005|p=7}}</ref> During the following decade, further advances allowed for the welding of reactive metals like [[aluminium|aluminum]] and [[magnesium]]. This in conjunction with developments in automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then during World War II.<ref>Lincoln Electric, p. 1.1–6</ref> In 1930, the first all-welded merchant vessel, [[M/S Carolinian]], was launched.

During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. In 1930, Kyle Taylor was responsible for the release of [[stud welding]], which soon became popular in shipbuilding and construction. Submerged arc welding was invented the same year and continues to be popular today. In 1932 a Russian, [[Konstantin Khrenov]] successfully implemented the first underwater electric arc welding. [[Gas tungsten arc welding]], after decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941, and gas metal arc welding followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non-[[ferrous]] materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Shielded metal arc welding was developed during the 1950s, using a flux-coated consumable electrode, and it quickly became the most popular metal arc welding process. In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding process debuted, in which the self-shielded wire electrode could be used with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds, and that same year, [[plasma arc welding]] was invented. Electroslag welding was introduced in 1958, and it was followed by its cousin, [[electrogas welding]], in 1961.<ref>{{harvnb|Cary|Helzer|2005|p=9}}</ref> In 1953, the Soviet scientist N. F. Kazakov proposed the [[diffusion welding|diffusion bonding]] method.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2005/Amir/bond.html |title=Diffusion Bonding of Materials |last=Kazakov |first=N.F |year=1985 |publisher=University of Cambridge |accessdate=2011-01-13 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5nUYH5lQv?url=http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2005/Amir/bond.html |archivedate=2010-02-12 |df= }}</ref>

Other recent developments in welding include the 1958 breakthrough of electron beam welding, making deep and narrow welding possible through the concentrated heat source. Following the invention of the laser in 1960, laser beam welding debuted several decades later, and has proved to be especially useful in high-speed, automated welding. [[Magnetic pulse welding]] (MPW) is industrially used since 1967. [[Friction stir welding]] was invented in 1991 by Wayne Thomas at [[The Welding Institute]] (TWI, UK) and found high-quality applications all over the world.<ref>{{cite book|author=Mel Schwartz|title=Innovations in Materials Manufacturing, Fabrication, and Environmental Safety|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpCs0AoQOBoC&pg=PA300|accessdate=10 July 2012|date=2011|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-8215-9|pages=300–}}</ref> All of these four new processes continue to be quite expensive due the high cost of the necessary equipment, and this has limited their applications.<ref>Lincoln Electric, pp. 1.1–10</ref>

==Processes==

===Arc===
{{Main article|Arc welding}}
[[File:Man welding a metal structure in a newly constructed house in Bengaluru, India.webm|thumb|Man welding a metal structure in a newly constructed house in Bengaluru, India]]
These processes use a [[welding power supply]] to create and maintain an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. They can use either [[direct current|direct]] (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable [[electrode]]s. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-[[inert gas]], known as a shielding gas, and filler material is sometimes used as well.

====Power supplies====
To supply the electrical power necessary for arc welding processes, a variety of different power supplies can be used. The most common welding power supplies are constant [[electrical current|current]] power supplies and constant [[voltage]] power supplies. In arc welding, the length of the arc is directly related to the voltage, and the amount of heat input is related to the current. Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal arc welding, because they maintain a relatively constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding. In these processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in the distance between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation distance.<ref>{{harvnb|Cary|Helzer|2005|pp=246–249}}</ref>

The type of current used plays an important role in arc welding. Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use direct current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or negatively. In welding, the positively charged [[anode]] will have a greater heat concentration, and as a result, changing the polarity of the electrode affects weld properties. If the electrode is positively charged, the base metal will be hotter, increasing weld penetration and welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively charged electrode results in more shallow welds.<ref>Kalpakjian and Schmid, p. 780</ref> Nonconsumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct current, as well as alternating current. However, with direct current, because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds.<ref>Lincoln Electric, p. 5.4–5</ref> Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every zero crossing, has been addressed with the invention of special power units that produce a [[square wave]] pattern instead of the normal [[sine wave]], making rapid zero crossings possible and minimizing the effects of the problem.<ref>Weman, p. 16</ref>

====Processes====
One of the most common types of arc welding is [[shielded metal arc welding]] (SMAW);<ref name="Weman63">Weman, p. 63</ref> it is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA) or stick welding. Electric current is used to strike an arc between the base material and consumable electrode rod, which is made of filler material (typically steel) and is covered with a flux that protects the weld area from [[redox|oxidation]] and contamination by producing [[carbon dioxide]] (CO2) gas during the welding process. The electrode core itself acts as filler material, making a separate filler unnecessary.<ref name="Weman63" />

[[Image:US Navy 090114-N-9704L-004 Hull Technician Fireman John Hansen lays beads for welding qualifications.jpg|thumb|left|Shielded metal arc welding]]

The process is versatile and can be performed with relatively inexpensive equipment, making it well suited to shop jobs and field work.<ref name="Weman63" /><ref name="Cary103">{{harvnb|Cary|Helzer|2005|p=103}}</ref> An operator can become reasonably proficient with a modest amount of training and can achieve mastery with experience. Weld times are rather slow, since the consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and because slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after welding.<ref name="Weman63" /> Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous materials, though special electrodes have made possible the welding of [[cast iron]], [[nickel]], aluminum, [[copper]], and other metals.<ref name="Cary103" />
[[Image:SMAW area diagram.svg|thumb|right|Diagram of arc and weld area, in shielded metal arc welding.
 
1. Coating Flow 
2. Rod 
3. Shield Gas 
4. Fusion 
5. Base metal 
6. Weld metal 
7. Solidified Slag
]]

[[Gas metal arc welding]] (GMAW), also known as metal inert gas or MIG welding, is a semi-automatic or automatic process that uses a continuous wire feed as an electrode and an inert or semi-inert gas mixture to protect the weld from contamination. Since the electrode is continuous, welding speeds are greater for GMAW than for SMAW.<ref name="LE5.43">Lincoln Electric, p. 5.4-3</ref>

A related process, [[flux-cored arc welding]] (FCAW), uses similar equipment but uses wire consisting of a steel electrode surrounding a powder fill material. This cored wire is more expensive than the standard solid wire and can generate fumes and/or slag, but it permits even higher welding speed and greater metal penetration.<ref>Weman, p. 53</ref>

[[Gas tungsten arc welding]] (GTAW), or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is a manual welding process that uses a nonconsumable [[tungsten]] electrode, an inert or semi-inert gas mixture, and a separate filler material.<ref name="Weman31">Weman, p. 31</ref> Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized by a stable arc and high quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds.<ref name="Weman31" />

GTAW can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often applied to [[stainless steel]] and light metals. It is often used when quality welds are extremely important, such as in [[bicycle]], aircraft and naval applications.<ref name="Weman31" /> A related process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to make the arc. The arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more critical and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of material thicknesses than can the GTAW process and it is much faster. It can be applied to all of the same materials as GTAW except magnesium, and automated welding of stainless steel is one important application of the process. A variation of the process is [[plasma cutting]], an efficient steel cutting process.<ref>Weman, pp. 37–38</ref>

[[Submerged arc welding]] (SAW) is a high-productivity welding method in which the arc is struck beneath a covering layer of flux. This increases arc quality, since contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by itself, and combined with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes, since the flux hides the arc and almost no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in industry, especially for large products and in the manufacture of welded pressure vessels.<ref>Weman, p. 68</ref> Other arc welding processes include [[atomic hydrogen welding]], [[electroslag welding]], [[electrogas welding]], and [[stud arc welding]].<ref>Weman, pp. 93–94</ref>

===Gas welding===
{{main article|Oxy-fuel welding and cutting}}

The most common gas welding process is oxyfuel welding,<ref name="Weman26" /> also known as oxyacetylene welding. It is one of the oldest and most versatile welding processes, but in recent years it has become less popular in industrial applications. It is still widely used for welding pipes and tubes, as well as repair work.<ref name="Weman26" />

The equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple, generally employing the combustion of acetylene in [[oxygen]] to produce a welding flame temperature of about 3100 °C.<ref name="Weman26" /> The flame, since it is less concentrated than an electric arc, causes slower weld cooling, which can lead to greater residual stresses and weld distortion, though it eases the welding of high alloy steels. A similar process, generally called oxyfuel cutting, is used to cut metals.<ref name="Weman26" />

===Resistance===
{{Main article|Resistance welding}}

Resistance welding involves the generation of heat by passing current through the resistance caused by the contact between two or more metal surfaces. Small pools of molten metal are formed at the weld area as high current (1000–100,000 [[Ampere|A]]) is passed through the metal.<ref name="Weman8084">Weman, pp. 80–84</ref> In general, resistance welding methods are efficient and cause little pollution, but their applications are somewhat limited and the equipment cost can be high.<ref name="Weman8084" />

[[Image:Spot welder.miller.triddle.jpg|thumb|Spot welder]]
[[Spot welding]] is a popular resistance welding method used to join overlapping metal sheets of up to 3 mm thick.<ref name="Weman8084" /> Two electrodes are simultaneously used to clamp the metal sheets together and to pass current through the sheets. The advantages of the method include [[efficient energy use]], limited workpiece deformation, high production rates, easy automation, and no required filler materials. Weld strength is significantly lower than with other welding methods, making the process suitable for only certain applications. It is used extensively in the automotive industry—ordinary cars can have several thousand spot welds made by [[industrial robot]]s. A specialized process, called [[shot welding]], can be used to spot weld stainless steel.<ref name="Weman8084" />

Like spot welding, [[seam welding]] relies on two electrodes to apply pressure and current to join metal sheets. However, instead of pointed electrodes, wheel-shaped electrodes roll along and often feed the workpiece, making it possible to make long continuous welds. In the past, this process was used in the manufacture of beverage cans, but now its uses are more limited.<ref name="Weman8084" /> Other resistance welding methods include [[butt welding]],<ref>{{Cite book|author = John Jernberg| title = Forging| page = 26| publisher = American Technical society| year = 1919| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-ksxAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA26}}</ref> [[flash welding]], [[projection welding]], and [[upset welding]].<ref name="Weman8084" />

===Energy beam===
Energy beam welding methods, namely [[laser beam welding]] and [[electron beam welding]], are relatively new processes that have become quite popular in high production applications. The two processes are quite similar, differing most notably in their source of power. Laser beam welding employs a highly focused laser beam, while electron beam welding is done in a vacuum and uses an electron beam. Both have a very high energy density, making deep weld penetration possible and minimizing the size of the weld area. Both processes are extremely fast, and are easily automated, making them highly productive. The primary disadvantages are their very high equipment costs (though these are decreasing) and a susceptibility to thermal cracking. Developments in this area include [[laser-hybrid welding]], which uses principles from both laser beam welding and arc welding for even better weld properties, [[cladding (metalworking)|laser cladding]], and [[x-ray welding]].<ref>Weman, pp. 95–101</ref>

===Solid-state===
[[File:Solid-state welding processes - AWS A3.0 2001.svg|thumb|300px|right|Solid-state welding processes [[classification chart]]<ref>AWS A3.0:2001, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions Including Terms for Adhesive Bonding, Brazing, Soldering, Thermal Cutting, and Thermal Spraying, American Welding Society (2001), p. 117. {{ISBN|0-87171-624-0}}</ref>]]
Like the first welding process, forge welding, some modern welding methods do not involve the melting of the materials being joined. One of the most popular, [[ultrasonic welding]], is used to connect thin sheets or wires made of metal or thermoplastic by vibrating them at high frequency and under high pressure.<ref name="Weman8990">Weman, pp. 89–90</ref> The equipment and methods involved are similar to that of resistance welding, but instead of electric current, vibration provides energy input. Welding metals with this process does not involve melting the materials; instead, the weld is formed by introducing mechanical vibrations horizontally under pressure. When welding plastics, the materials should have similar melting temperatures, and the vibrations are introduced vertically. Ultrasonic welding is commonly used for making electrical connections out of aluminum or copper, and it is also a very common polymer welding process.<ref name="Weman8990" />

Another common process, [[explosion welding]], involves the joining of materials by pushing them together under extremely high pressure. The energy from the impact plasticizes the materials, forming a weld, even though only a limited amount of heat is generated. The process is commonly used for welding dissimilar materials, such as the welding of aluminum with steel in ship hulls or compound plates.<ref name="Weman8990" /> Other solid-state welding processes include [[friction welding]] (including [[friction stir welding]]),<ref name="NZ">Stephan Kallee (August 2006) [http://www.twi.co.uk/content/spswkaug2006.html "NZ Fabricators begin to use Friction Stir Welding to produce aluminium components and panels"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316134257/http://www.twi.co.uk/content/spswkaug2006.html |date=March 16, 2010 }}. ''New Zealand Engineering News''.</ref> [[magnetic pulse welding]],<ref name="EMPT">Stephan Kallee et al. (2010) ''[http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2010/IPM.pdf Industrialisation of Electromagnetic Pulse Technology (EMPT) in India]'' 38th Anniversary Issue of PURCHASE India.</ref> co-extrusion welding, [[cold welding]], [[diffusion bonding]], [[exothermic welding]], [[high frequency welding]], hot pressure welding, [[induction welding]], and [[Cladding (metalworking)|roll welding]].<ref name="Weman8990" />

Welds can be geometrically prepared in many different ways. The five basic types of weld joints are the butt joint, lap joint, corner joint, edge joint, and T-joint (a variant of this last is the [[cruciform joint]]). Other variations exist as well—for example, double-V preparation joints are characterized by the two pieces of material each tapering to a single center point at one-half their height. Single-U and double-U preparation joints are also fairly common—instead of having straight edges like the single-V and double-V preparation joints, they are curved, forming the shape of a U. Lap joints are also commonly more than two pieces thick—depending on the process used and the thickness of the material, many pieces can be welded together in a lap joint geometry.<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Hicks
| first = John
| year = 1999
| title = Welded Joint Design
| location = [[New York City|New York]]
| publisher = Industrial Press
| isbn = 0-8311-3130-6 | pages=52–55
}}</ref>

Many welding processes require the use of a particular joint design; for example, resistance spot welding, laser beam welding, and electron beam welding are most frequently performed on lap joints. Other welding methods, like shielded metal arc welding, are extremely versatile and can weld virtually any type of joint. Some processes can also be used to make multipass welds, in which one weld is allowed to cool, and then another weld is performed on top of it. This allows for the welding of thick sections arranged in a single-V preparation joint, for example.<ref>{{harvnb|Cary|Helzer|2005|pp=19, 103, 206}}</ref>

[[Image:Welded butt joint x-section.svg|thumb|The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the darkest gray representing the weld or fusion zone, the medium gray the heat-affected zone, and the lightest gray the base material.]]
After welding, a number of distinct regions can be identified in the weld area. The weld itself is called the fusion zone—more specifically, it is where the filler metal was laid during the welding process. The properties of the fusion zone depend primarily on the filler metal used, and its compatibility with the base materials. It is surrounded by the [[heat-affected zone]], the area that had its microstructure and properties altered by the weld. These properties depend on the base material's behavior when subjected to heat. The metal in this area is often weaker than both the base material and the fusion zone, and is also where residual stresses are found.<ref>{{harvnb|Cary|Helzer|2005|pp=401–404}}</ref>

==Quality==
{{main article|Weld quality assurance}}
[[Image:Pipe root weld with HAZ.jpg|thumb|The blue area results from oxidation at a corresponding temperature of {{convert|600|°F|°C|abbr=on}}. This is an accurate way to identify temperature, but does not represent the HAZ width. The HAZ is the narrow area that immediately surrounds the welded base metal.]]

Many distinct factors influence the strength of welds and the material around them, including the welding method, the amount and concentration of energy input, the [[weldability]] of the base material, filler material, and flux material, the design of the joint, and the interactions between all these factors.<ref name="Weman6062">Weman, pp. 60–62</ref> To test the quality of a weld, either [[destructive testing|destructive]] or [[nondestructive testing]] methods are commonly used to verify that welds are free of defects, have acceptable levels of residual stresses and distortion, and have acceptable heat-affected zone (HAZ) properties. Types of [[welding defect]]s include cracks, distortion, gas inclusions (porosity), non-metallic inclusions, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration, lamellar tearing, and undercutting.

The metalworking industry has instituted [[List of welding codes|specifications and codes]] to guide [[welders]], [[weld inspectors]], [[engineers]], managers, and property owners in proper welding technique, design of welds, how to judge the quality of [[Welding Procedure Specification]], how to judge the skill of the person performing the weld, and how to ensure the quality of a welding job.<ref name="Weman6062" /> Methods such as [[visual inspection]], [[radiography]], [[ultrasonic testing]], [[phased-array ultrasonics]], [[dye penetrant inspection]], [[magnetic particle inspection]], or [[industrial computed tomography]] can help with detection and analysis of certain defects.

===Heat-affected zone===
The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is a ring surrounding the weld in which the temperature of the welding process, combined with the stresses of uneven heating and cooling, alter the [[heat-treatment]] properties of the alloy. The effects of welding on the material surrounding the weld can be detrimental—depending on the materials used and the heat input of the welding process used, the HAZ can be of varying size and strength. The [[thermal diffusivity]] of the base material plays a large role—if the diffusivity is high, the material cooling rate is high and the HAZ is relatively small. Conversely, a low diffusivity leads to slower cooling and a larger HAZ. The amount of heat injected by the welding process plays an important role as well, as processes like oxyacetylene welding have an unconcentrated heat input and increase the size of the HAZ. Processes like laser beam welding give a highly concentrated, limited amount of heat, resulting in a small HAZ. Arc welding falls between these two extremes, with the individual processes varying somewhat in heat input.<ref>Lincoln Electric, pp. 6.1-5–6.1–6</ref><ref>Kalpakjian and Schmid, pp. 821–22</ref> To calculate the heat input for arc welding procedures, the following formula can be used:

:<math>Q = \left(\frac{V \times I \times 60}{S \times 1000} \right) \times
\mathit{Efficiency}</math>

where ''Q'' = heat input ([[kilojoule|kJ]]/mm), ''V'' = voltage ([[Volt|V]]), ''I'' = current (A), and ''S'' = welding speed (mm/min). The efficiency is dependent on the welding process used, with shielded metal arc welding having a value of 0.75, gas metal arc welding and submerged arc welding, 0.9, and gas tungsten arc welding, 0.8.<ref>Weman, p. 5</ref> Methods of alleviating the stresses and brittleness created in the HAZ include [[Heat treating#Stress relieving|stress relieving]] and [[Tempering (metallurgy)#Welded steel|tempering]].<ref>''How To Weld'' By Todd Bridigum - Motorbook 2008 Page 37</ref>

===Lifetime extension with aftertreatment methods===
[[Image:Example HiFIT-treated assembly.jpg|thumb|left|Example: High Frequency Impact Treatment for lifetime extension]]
The durability and life of dynamically loaded, welded steel structures is determined in many cases by the welds, in particular the weld transitions. Through selective treatment of the transitions by [[grinding (abrasive cutting)]], [[shot peening]], [[High Frequency Impact Treatment]], etc. the durability of many designs increase significantly.

==Unusual conditions==
[[File:Working Diver 01.jpg|thumb|left|Underwater welding]]

While many welding applications are done in controlled environments such as factories and repair shops, some welding processes are commonly used in a wide variety of conditions, such as open air, underwater, and [[vacuum]]s (such as space). In open-air applications, such as construction and outdoors repair, shielded metal arc welding is the most common process. Processes that employ inert gases to protect the weld cannot be readily used in such situations, because unpredictable atmospheric movements can result in a faulty weld. Shielded metal arc welding is also often used in underwater welding in the construction and repair of ships, offshore platforms, and pipelines, but others, such as flux cored arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding, are also common. Welding in space is also possible—it was first attempted in 1969 by [[Russia]]n cosmonauts, when they performed experiments to test shielded metal arc welding, plasma arc welding, and electron beam welding in a depressurized environment. Further testing of these methods was done in the following decades, and today researchers continue to develop methods for using other welding processes in space, such as laser beam welding, resistance welding, and friction welding. Advances in these areas may be useful for future endeavours similar to the construction of the [[International Space Station]], which could rely on welding for joining in space the parts that were manufactured on Earth.<ref>{{harvnb|Cary|Helzer|2005|pp=677–683}}</ref>

==Glass and plastic welding==
[[File:Glass welding two tubes together.JPG|thumb|The welding together of two tubes made from lead glass]]
[[File:Cast glass bowl showing the weld seam.JPG|thumb|A bowl made from cast-glass. The two halves are joined together by the weld seam, running down the middle.]]

Glasses and certain types of plastics are commonly welded materials. Unlike metals, which have a specific [[melting point]], glasses and plastics have a melting range, called the [[glass transition]]. When heating the solid material into this range, it will generally become softer and more pliable. When it crosses through the glass transition, it will become a very thick, sluggish, viscous liquid. Typically, this [[viscous liquid]] will have very little [[surface tension]], becoming a sticky, honey-like consistency, so welding can usually take place by simply pressing two melted surfaces together. The two liquids will generally mix and join at first contact. Upon cooling through the glass transition, the welded piece will solidify as one solid piece of [[amorphous solid|amorphous material]].

===Glass welding===
{{main article|Glassblowing}}

Glass welding is a common practice during glassblowing. It is used very often in the construction of lighting, [[neon sign]]s, [[flashtube]]s, scientific equipment, and the manufacture of dishes and other glassware. It is also used during [[glass casting]] for joining the halves of glass molds, making items such as bottles and jars. Welding glass is accomplished by heating the glass through the glass transition, turning it into a thick, formable, liquid mass. Heating is usually done with a gas or oxy-gas torch, or a furnace, because the temperatures for melting glass are often quite high. This temperature may vary, depending on the type of glass. For example, [[lead glass]] becomes a weldable liquid at around {{convert|1600|F|C}}, and can be welded with a simple propane torch. On the other hand, quartz glass ([[fused silica]]) must be heated to over {{convert|3000|F|C}}, but quickly loses its viscosity and formability if overheated, so an [[oxyhydrogen]] torch must be used. Sometimes a tube may be attached to the glass, allowing it to be blown into various shapes, such as bulbs, bottles, or tubes. When two pieces of liquid glass are pressed together, they will usually weld very readily. Welding a handle onto a pitcher can usually be done with relative ease. However, when welding a tube to another tube, a combination of blowing and suction, and pressing and pulling is used to ensure a good seal, to shape the glass, and to keep the surface tension from closing the tube in on itself. Sometimes a filler rod may be used, but usually not.

Because glass is very brittle in its solid state, it is often prone to cracking upon heating and cooling, especially if the heating and cooling are uneven. This is because the brittleness of glass does not allow for uneven [[thermal expansion]]. Glass that has been welded will usually need to be cooled very slowly and evenly through the glass transition, in a process called [[annealing (glass)|annealing]], to relieve any internal stresses created by a [[temperature gradient]].

There are many types of glass, and it is most common to weld using the same types. Different glasses often have different rates of thermal expansion, which can cause them to crack upon cooling when they contract differently. For instance, quartz has very low thermal expansion, while [[soda-lime glass]] has very high thermal expansion. When welding different glasses to each other, it is usually important to closely match their coefficients of thermal expansion, to ensure that cracking does not occur. Also, some glasses will simply not mix with others, so welding between certain types may not be possible.

Glass can also be welded to metals and ceramics, although with metals the process is usually more adhesion to the surface of the metal rather than a commingling of the two materials. However, certain glasses will typically bond only to certain metals. For example, lead glass bonds readily to [[copper]] or [[molybdenum]], but not to aluminum. [[Tungsten]] electrodes are often used in lighting but will not bond to quartz glass, so the tungsten is often wetted with molten [[borosilicate glass]], which bonds to both tungsten and quartz. However, care must be taken to ensure that all materials have similar coefficients of thermal expansion to prevent cracking both when the object cools and when it is heated again. Special [[alloy]]s are often used for this purpose, ensuring that the coefficients of expansion match, and sometimes thin, metallic coatings may be applied to a metal to create a good bond with the glass.<ref>Freek Bos, Christian Louter, Fred Veer (2008) ''Challenging Glass: Conference on Architectural and Structural Applications''. JOS Press. p. 194. {{ISBN|1586038664}}</ref><ref>Bernard D. Bolas (1921) [https://archive.org/details/handbookoflabora02bolarich ''A handbook of laboratory glassblowing'']. London, G. Routledge and sons</ref>

===Plastic welding===
{{main article|Plastic welding}}

Plastics are generally divided into two categories, which are "thermosets" and "thermoplastics." A [[thermoset]] is a plastic in which a chemical reaction sets the molecular bonds after first forming the plastic, and then the bonds cannot be broken again without degrading the plastic. Thermosets cannot be melted, therefore, once a thermoset has set it is impossible to weld it. Examples of thermosets include [[epoxy|epoxies]], [[silicone]], [[vulcanized rubber]], [[polyester]], and [[polyurethane]].

[[Thermoplastic]]s, by contrast, form long molecular chains, which are often coiled or intertwined, forming an amorphous structure without any long-range, crystalline order. Some thermoplastics may be fully amorphous, while others have a partially crystalline/partially amorphous structure. Both amorphous and semicrystalline thermoplastics have a glass transition, above which welding can occur, but semicrystallines also have a specific melting point which is above the glass transition. Above this melting point, the viscous liquid will become a free-flowing liquid (see [[rheological weldability]] for [[thermoplastics]]). Examples of thermoplastics include [[polyethylene]], [[polypropylene]], [[polystyrene]], [[polyvinylchloride]] (PVC), and fluoroplastics like [[Teflon]] and [[Spectralon]].

Welding thermoplastic is very similar to welding glass. The plastic first must be cleaned and then heated through the glass transition, turning the weld-interface into a thick, viscous liquid. Two heated interfaces can then be pressed together, allowing the molecules to mix through intermolecular diffusion, joining them as one. Then the plastic is cooled through the glass transition, allowing the weld to solidify. A filler rod may often be used for certain types of joints. The main differences between welding glass and plastic are the types of heating methods, the much lower melting temperatures, and the fact that plastics will burn if overheated. Many different methods have been devised for heating plastic to a weldable temperature without burning it. Ovens or electric heating tools can be used to melt the plastic. Ultrasonic, laser, or friction heating are other methods. Resistive metals may be implanted in the plastic, which respond to induction heating. Some plastics will begin to burn at temperatures lower than their glass transition, so welding can be performed by blowing a heated, inert gas onto the plastic, melting it while, at the same time, shielding it from oxygen.<ref>''Plastics and Composites: Welding Handbook'' By David A. Grewell, A. Benatar, Joon Bu Park – Hanser Gardener 2003</ref>

Many thermoplastics can also be welded using chemical [[solvent]]s. When placed in contact with the plastic, the solvent will begin to soften it, bringing the surface into a thick, liquid solution. When two melted surfaces are pressed together, the molecules in the solution mix, joining them as one. Because the solvent can permeate the plastic, the solvent evaporates out through the surface of the plastic, causing the weld to drop out of solution and solidify. A common use for solvent welding is for joining PVC or ABS ([[acrylonitrile butadiene styrene]]) pipes during [[plumbing]], or for welding [[styrene]] and polystyrene plastics in the construction of [[physical model|models]]. Solvent welding is especially effective on plastics like PVC which burn at or below their glass transition, but may be ineffective on plastics like Teflon or polyethylene that are resistant to [[chemical decomposition]].<ref>''Handbook of Plastics Joining: A Practical Guide'' By Plastics Design Library – PDL 1997 Page 137, 146</ref>

== Usage in competitive ==
{{Metalworks/MapLeagueInclusionTable}}
== Locations ==

{{Map locations
| title = Metalworks — The middle point
| image = Metalworks Middle.jpeg
| area1 = Valley
| x1 = 218px
| y1 = 170px
| area2 = Lower Lobby / Main
| x2 = 316px
| y2 = 130px
| area3 = Elbow / Banana
| x3 = 454px
| y3 = 90px
| area4 = Point
| x4 = 430px
| y4 = 180px
| area5 = Crate
| x5 = 596px
| y5 = 150px
| area6 = Upper larry / Balcony
| x6 = 527px
| y6 = 330px
| area7 = Truck
| x7 = 700px
| y7 = 182px
}}

{{Map locations
| title = Metalworks — The second point
| image = Metalworks Second.jpeg
| area1 = Underpass / Ground
| x1 = 390px
| y1 = 170px
| area2 = Alleyway
| x2 = 637px
| y2 = 200px
| area3 = Main / Metal
| x3 = 388px
| y3 = 125px
| area4 = Point
| x4 = 283px
| y4 = 244px
| area5 = Bridge
| x5 = 247px
| y5 = 179px
}}

{{Map locations
| title = Metalworks — The last point
| image = Metalworks Last.jpeg
| area1 = Far Left
| x1 = 131px
| y1 = 170px
| area2 = Shed
| x2 = 177px
| y2 = 121px
| area3 = Shutter
| x3 = 330px
| y3 = 80px
| area4 = Main
| x4 = 402px
| y4 = 68px
| area5 = Far Right
| x5 = 612px
| y5 = 102px
}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
== Jim Vickers rating ==
1/5 Jims
{{Active Maps Navbox}}{{All Maps Navbox|y}}

Granary

2017-08-09T21:17:39Z

81.101.106.71:

{{NewInfobox Map
|name=
|image=
|caption=

|maptype=5cp
|filename=cp_granary
|version=Official Release
|author1=valve
|author1steam=
|author2=
|author2steam=
|author3=
|author3steam=
|released=9 October 2007
|updated=7 July 2016
|official=1

|gamemode1=6v6
|gamemode2=hl
|gamemode3=
|adapted=
|pro=Granary Pro
|popularity=moderate
|lpleague=
|lpseason=

|download=http://www.sodahappy.com/fastdl/tf2/maps/cp_granary.bsp.bz2
|workshop=
|tf2maps=
|gamebanana=
|tftv=
|tftv2=
|etf2l=
|ugc=
|officialwiki=Granary_(Control_Point)
|officialwiki2=Granary_(competitive)

|footnotes=
}}

'''cp_granary''' is a [[5CP]] map created by Valve, and it is one of the 6 original TF2 maps. It is a staple in the [[6v6]] leagues and is notorious for being prone to stalemates.

== History ==
Granary, along with Badlands, was one of the first maps played in the 6v6 competitive format. Granary is still one of the most iconic and most played maps in 6v6, and is also played occasionally in Highlander. Since the first versions of the map there have been numerous changes to it, resulting in more refined and balanced gameplay but it is still considered one of the slowest maps, this results from being an extremely big map, with very tight chokes and easily spammable, making constant stalemates and spam exchange part of the flow of the map.

The last update to the map was in the [http://wiki.teamfortress.com/wiki/July_10,_2013_Patch 10th of July 2013 patch], and revolved around balance and symmetry changes to level the playing field between the teams, while also removing and reworking multiple hiding and jumping areas across the map.

== Usage in competitive ==
{{Granary/MapLeagueInclusionTable}}

== Strategy ==
=== Middle point ===
{{Map locations
| title = Granary — The middle point
| image = Granary Middle.jpeg
| area1 = Garage
| x1 = 336px
| y1 = 95px
| area2 = Choke
| x2 = 600px
| y2 = 60px
| area3 = Balcony / Catwalk
| x3 = 479px
| y3 = 37px
| area4 = Top left (crate) / 2
| x4 = 308px
| y4 = 118px
| area5 = Top right (crate) / 3
| x5 = 543px
| y5 = 108px
| area6 = Back left (crate) / 1
| x6 = 296px
| y6 = 230px
| area7 = Back right (crate) / 4
| x7 = 579px
| y7 = 238px
| area8 = Far left
| x8 = 227px
| y8 = 277px
| area9 = Far right
| x9 = 588px
| y9 = 154px
}}
The Granary middle point is characterised best by the big height advantage provided by the four crates around the point. That shifts the class influence to Soldiers, as they're the best at exploiting it. This also means Scouts have less of an impact than usual.

The [[Demoman]] can choose one of the three rollouts: through the left entrance, to catwalk or through garage. The catwalk rollout differs from the other two in the fact that it aims for the Demoman and the [[Medic]] to take higher ground after acquiring an advantage in the fight, which significantly improves the chance of a won midfight.

Many teams will use double Soldier jumps to deal damage to the rest of the team that is on the lower ground: the Demoman, the [[Scout]]s and the Medic. Due to the layout of the point, the Scout's ability of denying jumping Soldiers is hampered. Because of that, one of the Scouts in a team will usually seek to kill the enemy Demoman, while the other stays by his Demoman to prevent the enemy from doing so.

=== Second point ===
{{Map locations
| title = Granary — The second point, yard
| image = Granary Second Point 1.jpg
| area1 = Choke | x1=102px | y1=4px
| area2 = Window | x2=338px | y2=31px
| area3 = Garage | x3=469px | y3=80px
| area4 = Left yard | x4=270px | y4=228px
| area5 = Right yard | x5=600px | y5=228px
}}
{{Map locations
| title = Granary — The second point, left yard view
| image = Granary Second Point 2.jpg
| area1 = Dropdown | x1=667px | y1=58px
| area2 = Z | x2=282px | y2=157px
| area3 = To stairs / Spiral / Lunchbox | x3=128px | y3=137px
| area4 = Garage | x4=722px | y4=197px
| area5 = Left yard | x5=258px | y5=250px
}}
{{Map locations
| title = Granary — The second point, inside view
| image = Granary Second Point.jpg
| area1 = Dropdown | x1=88px | y1=23px
| area2 = Top | x2=53px | y2=169px
| area3 = Left | x3=76px | y3=274px
| area4 = Stairs / spiral | x4=312px | y4=307px
| area5 = Lunchbox | x5=580px | y5=356px
}}
The second point is very characteristic in the fact that it's divided into two distinct, separated areas, with their respective chokepoints: the yard and the building. That means a defending team can choose to hold each of the two areas, depending on the situation and advantages. The second point is the most prone to stalemates in the whole map.

==== Attacking ====
Pushing the second point is heavily dependent on the other team's positioning. If the enemy is holding in the yard, the following push routes should be considered:
* '''Through left''' — The distance between the both teams is bigger than usual, and the entrance is very narrow, and therefore vulnerable to spam.
* '''Through the window''' — Often the most preferable push. It offers the shortest route to the enemy combo, allowing the Pocket Soldier to rocket jump directly into the enemies and dealing damage for the team to follow up on.
* '''Through garage''' — This is the biggest entrance to the point, and not directly spammable. This allows the Medic to use the ÜberCharge a few seconds later, which prolongs the window of opportunity for the pushing team. The pushing team however has to be wary of the dropdown area, as it offers a good opportunity for the Roaming Soldier to cause the Medic to use early or even drop his ÜberCharge.
When pushing the yard area, the team should seek to acquire a pick or two, which causes the enemy to be unable to keep holding inside the building and forces them to back up to the last point.

Attacking the enemy team holding inside the building can be done in following ways:
* '''Through shutter''' — The most obvious route to the second point, but subject to significant amounts of spam from the Demoman. That forces the Medic to ÜberCharge almost immediately after going through the door.
* '''Through Z''' — Z is a very narrow walkway, but it is significantly closer to where the combo usually holds. As with shutter, this push pretty much requires an early ÜberCharge, unless the enemy Demoman is down.
* '''Through lunchbox / top''' — This push relies on being able to get to the lunchbox area relatively safe, which is not possible unless the flank classes are down or weakened. It is very effective however, as it cuts off potential escape routes if performed early enough.

Due to the nature of the point, a Demoman pick is usually a sign to push, as his stickies prevent the pushing team from taking ground without an ÜberCharge. As most of the action takes place indoors, a Soldier pick is usually good enough as well.

==== Defending ====
Defending the second point relies heavily on denying the other team space by the means of spam. It's extremely important for the Demoman to stay alive, as his sticky traps and grenade spam can cover a lot of entrances simultaneously.

A good tactic is to make the enemy team use an ÜberCharge in yard, to then back up quickly indoors and use the Medic's ÜberCharge to walk out and kill the enemy. This can't be done however if the defending team loses a lot of players before backing out.

To avoid a surprise wrap-around push while holding inside, the flank needs to watch the right lunchbox area and immediately report back if any attackers are spotted, so that the combo is aware of the fact and can back out in time.

Other strategies, such as utilising the dropdown area or using a [[Sniper]] to try and get a pick from the forward respawn (requires for the player to respawn while the enemy is capturing the middle point) can also work when at a disadvantage.

=== Last point ===
{{Map locations
| title = Granary — The last point
| image = Granary Last Point.jpg
| area1 = Top right / Window | x1=476px | y1=29px
| area2 = Top left | x2=357px | y2=38px
| area3 = Left | x3=254px | y3=63px
| area4 = Right | x4=553px | y4=98px
| area5 = Left yard | x5=225px | y5=164px
| area6 = Right yard | x6=571px | y6=171px
| area7 = Upper pipe | x7=464px | y7=194px
| area8 = Lower pipe | x8=324px | y8=223px
| area9 = Right spawn | x9=557px | y9=327px
| area10 = Left spawn | x10=225px | y10=343px
}}

{{Ambox
|type=type
|image=Logs.tf icon.png
|header=The details for this section are incomplete.
|smalltext=If you have the capability to fill them in, please do to help Comp TF2 and the wiki grow!}}

====Positioning====

* '''Attacking'''
* Scouts — Scouts will often play more passively, often attempting to pick the soldier that normally watches '''upper'''. When your team is about to push, go back to your medic for buffs, and either take the uber in, or go through a different door to the one your combo is taking to attack last.
* Roamer — The roamer will generally watch upper, as the enemy roamer coming through there can cause your medic to force or even drop. If in need of health/ammo, either go back to '''lunchbox''' for health and ammo, and call a scout to watch upper for you, or get your medic to heal you.
* Pocket — Mostly stays lower, with the medic. If your team decides to push through '''upper''', walk up with your medic, and your demo can sticky/grenade jump up when you reach the top, if you want him to take some of the uber.
* Demo — Mostly stays lower, with the medic. It is important to watch your sticky traps, and to also not stand too far out in the open, as you are a key pick for the enemy team if they have a sniper and intend to push out.
* Medic — Mostly stays lower, with the combo. If your team decides to push through '''upper''', call your pocket to walk up through lunchbox with you. Be careful not to stand right on the point, as then you are in a clear sightline for an enemy sniper if they have one.

* '''Defending'''
* Scouts —

====Attacking====
When pushing last, you have 3 options of where to send your combo. This will depend on where the enemy team is holding, and so choose a plan of attack accordingly.
* '''Right shutter''' — This is generally used when there is a large advantage towards the attacking team, such as if the holding team were wiped on mid. It provides the shortest path to the capture last point without having to walk up with your medic through lunchbox. It also allows the attacking team to get early spam onto the more commonly used spawn door, blocking the enemy team from getting up onto pipe, or getting out of spawn. If used when there are no serious advantages to the attacking team, it can be harder to get into the point, as the holding team will have the height advantage, allowing them to spam down onto your combo.
* '''Left shutter''' — The most common method of pushing, as generally the left side is held by the scouts, making it easy to take the ubered combo through here, as the will take less entry spam, and you may be able to delay popping your uber, rather than using it straight away.
== Jim Vickers rating ==
2/5 jims
{{All Maps Navbox}}

Gullywash

2017-08-09T21:09:58Z

81.101.106.71:

{{stub}}
{{NewInfobox Map
|name=
|image=
|caption=

|maptype=5cp
|filename=cp_gullywash_final1
|version=Official Release
|author1=Jan "Arnold" Laroy
|author1steam=76561197961658278
|author2=
|author2steam=
|author3=
|author3steam=
|released=10 April 2009
|updated=13 October 2011
|official=1

|gamemode1=6v6
|gamemode2=hl
|gamemode3=
|adapted=
|pro=
|popularity=staple
|lpleague=
|lpseason=

|download=http://fakkelbrigade.eu/maps/cp_gullywash_final1.bsp.bz2
|workshop=
|tf2maps=6254
|gamebanana=
|tftv=
|tftv2=
|etf2l=
|ugc=
|officialwiki=Gullywash
|officialwiki2=Gullywash_(competitive)

|footnotes=
}}
'''cp_gullywash_final1''' is a map created by Arnold.

== History ==
Gullywash was first posted to the tf2maps.net forums on April 9, 2009 before being officially added to the game on October 13, 2011.

== Usage in competitive ==

Gullywash is used commonly in both [[Highlander]] and [[6v6]] across multiple leagues.
{{Gullywash/MapLeagueInclusionTable}}

== Map Locations ==

=== Middle Point ===
{{Map locations
| title = Gullywash — The middle point
| image = Gullywash_Middle_Point.jpg
| area1 = Choke
| x1 = 485px
| y1 = 110px
| area2 = Big Door
| x2 = 170px
| y2 = 130px
| area3 = Dropdown
| x3 = 530px
| y3 = 185px
| area4 = Lower / Yard
| x4 = 616px
| y4 = 277px
| area5 = Elbow
| x5 = 315px
| y5 = 142px
| area6 = Nipple / Point
| x6 = 390px
| y6 = 90px
| area7 = Ramp / Banana
| x7 = 80px
| y7 = 170px
| area8 = Boxes / Crates
| x8 = 90px
| y8 = 225px
| area9 = Floor
| x9 = 295px
| y9 = 200px
}}

=== Second Point===
{{Map locations
| title = Gullywash - The second point
| image = Gullywash_Second_Point.jpg
| area1 = Upper / Balcony
| x1 = 535px
| y1 = 160px
| area2 = Rock
| x2 = 135px
| y2 = 150px
| area3 = Big Door
| x3 = 680px
| y3 = 230px
| area4 = Lobby
| x4 = 740px
| y4 = 310px
| area5 = Choke
| x5 = 305px
| y5 = 180px
}}

===Lobby===
{{Map locations
| title = Gullywash - Lobby
| image = Gullywash_Lobby.jpg
| area1 = River
| x1 = 190px
| y1 = 90px
| area2 = Balcony / Launchpad
| x2 = 400px
| y2 = 140px
| area3 = Lower Lobby / Lower Lower
| x3 = 80px
| y3 = 300px
| area4 = Main
| x4 = 700px
| y4 = 280px
| area5 = Upper Lobby
| x5 = 305px
| y5 = 180px
| area6 = Shutter / Lockers
| x6 = 435px
| y6 = 160px
}}

===Last===
{{Map locations
| title = Gullywash - The last point
| image = Gullywash_Last_Point.jpg
| area1 = Shutter / Lockers
| x1 = 150px
| y1 = 198px
| area2 = Balcony / Launchpad
| x2 = 360px
| y2 = 150px
| area3 = Left Batts
| x3 = 80px
| y3 = 300px
| area4 = Last
| x4 = 700px
| y4 = 280px
| area5 = Main
| x5 = 270px
| y5 = 230px
| area6 = River
| x6 = 485px
| y6 = 190px
| area7 = Right Batts
| x7 = 594px
| y7 = 200px
}}

There is an area which can be accessed by walking all the way through River which has an opening under the point and a way to access the point from behind. This area is called "Water" because in early versions of the map the area was filled with water. There is also an area under Left which allows access to the control point. This area is generally referred to as Secret. It is important to clear both Water and Secret before moving out, as Scouts and Roamers will often attempt to hide in these areas and walk onto the point after the other team has left.
== Jim Vickers rating ==
solid 4/5 jims
{{Active Maps Navbox}}{{All Maps Navbox|y}}

Insomnia61

2017-08-09T20:36:39Z

81.101.106.71:

{{TabsHeader|name1=Overview|link1=Insomnia61/Overview
|name2=Main Event|link2=Insomnia61
|name3=Statistics|link3=Insomnia61/Statistics
|This=2
}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:Insomnia61: Main Event}}
{{NewInfobox Season
|name= Insomnia61
|image=
|icon=Multiplayicon.png
|caption=
|series= Insomnia Gaming Festival
|organizer= [https://multiplay.com/ Multiplay]
|sponsor=
|gamemode= 6v6
|gamemode2=
|type = LAN (Local And Network)
|country = England
|city = Wembley Arena, London
|venue = [http://www.thenec.co.uk/ NEC]
|format=
|prizepool=£5,000,000
|date =
|sdate = 2017-08-26
|edate = 2017-08-29
|totalteams =
|bestplayer =
|web= http://www.insomniagamingfestival.com/insomnia/whats-on/insomnia61-team-fortress-2-open/
|archive=http://archive.is/QOOWF
|brackets= |bracketscomment=Invite Group Stage
|brackets2= |brackets2comment=Playoffs
|teamfirst=
|teamsecond=
|teamthird=
|teamfourth=
|map1=Sunshine
|map2=Granary Pro
|map3=Bagel
|map4=Metalworks
|map5=Coalplant
|map6=Reckoner
|map7=Gravelpit
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|next=
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|footnotes=
}}
The '''Insomnia61 Team Fortress 2 Open''', commonly referred to as '''Insomnia61''' or simply '''i61''', is the successor to [[i58]] and part of the [[Insomnia Gaming Festival|Insomnia Gaming LAN Series]] hosted by [https://multiplay.com/ Multiplay]. The event will be held at [http://www.thenec.co.uk/ The NEC] in Birmingham, England from the 26th to the 29th of August 2017. A £5,000,000 prize pool is up for grabs.

== Prizes ==
{{prize pool start}}
{{prize pool slot|place=1|usdprize= 3,000,000|localprize = 0|tbd |lastvs1= |lastscore1= |lastvsscore1= }}
{{prize pool slot|place=2|usdprize= 2,000,000|localprize = 0|tbd|lastvs1= |lastscore1= |lastvsscore1= }}
{{prize pool slot|place=3|usdprize= 1,000,000|localprize = 0|tbd|lastvs1= |lastscore1= |lastvsscore1= }}
{{prize pool slot|place=4|usdprize= 0,000,000|localprize = 0|tbd|lastvs1= |lastscore1= |lastvsscore1= }}
{{Prize pool end}}

== Invite Group Participants ==

Not all teams participating in the Invite Group have been announced or confirmed yet.

{{Box|start|padding=2em}}
{{6sTeamCard
|team=Ascent
|image=AscentEsports.png
|scout1=corsa |scout1flag=us
|scout2=yomps |scout2flag=us
|roamer=rando |roamerflag=us
|pocket=Ma3la |pocketflag=us
|demoman=Bdonski |demomanflag=us
|medic=Nursey |medicflag=us
|notes=
}}
{{6sTeamCard
|team=Lowpander
|image=Lowpander.png
|scout1=Funs|scout1flag=wales
|scout2=Mr.Epic |scout2flag=ru
|roamer=Muuki |roamerflag=se
|pocket=uubers |pocketflag=lv
|demoman=Hildreth |demomanflag=uken
|medic=Crayon|medicflag=ireland
|notes=
}}
{{Box|break|padding=2em}}
{{6sTeamCard
|team=Team SVIFT
|image=TeamSVIFT.jpg
|scout1=astt |scout1flag=fi
|scout2=SVMZI |scout2flag=de
|roamer=Silentes |roamerflag=en
|pocket=b4nny |pocketflag=us
|demoman=alle |demomanflag=se
|medic=Jim Vickers |medicflag=en
|notes=
}}
{{Box|end|padding=2em}}

== Intermediate Group Participants ==
Teams participating in the Intermediate Group have not yet been announced.

== Low Group Participants ==
Teams participating in the Low Group have not yet been announced.

== Open Group Participants ==

Teams participating in the Open Group have not yet been announced.

== Additional content ==
===Streams===
* {{flag|usuk}} [https://www.twitch.tv/dreamhackcs WARHURYEAH.GG]

===VODs===

===Highlights===

== References ==
{{reflist}}

Insomnia61

2017-08-09T20:29:04Z

81.101.106.71:

{{TabsHeader|name1=Overview|link1=Insomnia61/Overview
|name2=Main Event|link2=Insomnia61
|name3=Statistics|link3=Insomnia61/Statistics
|This=2
}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:Insomnia61: Main Event}}
{{NewInfobox Season
|name= Insomnia61
|image=
|icon=Multiplayicon.png
|caption=
|series= Insomnia Gaming Festival
|organizer= [https://multiplay.com/ Multiplay]
|sponsor=
|gamemode= 6v6
|gamemode2=
|type = LAN (Local And Network)
|country = England
|city = Wembley Arena, London
|venue = [http://www.thenec.co.uk/ NEC]
|format=
|prizepool=£5,000,000
|date =
|sdate = 2017-08-26
|edate = 2017-08-29
|totalteams =
|bestplayer =
|web= http://www.insomniagamingfestival.com/insomnia/whats-on/insomnia61-team-fortress-2-open/
|archive=http://archive.is/QOOWF
|brackets= |bracketscomment=Invite Group Stage
|brackets2= |brackets2comment=Playoffs
|teamfirst=
|teamsecond=
|teamthird=
|teamfourth=
|map1=Sunshine
|map2=Granary Pro
|map3=Bagel
|map4=Metalworks
|map5=Coalplant
|map6=Reckoner
|map7=Gravelpit
|map8=
|map9=
|map10=
|map11=
|map12=
|map13=
|map14=
|map15=
|next=
|nextlabel=
|previous= Insomnia58
|previouslabel= i58
|footnotes=
}}
The '''Insomnia61 Team Fortress 2 Open''', commonly referred to as '''Insomnia61''' or simply '''i61''', is the successor to [[i58]] and part of the [[Insomnia Gaming Festival|Insomnia Gaming LAN Series]] hosted by [https://multiplay.com/ Multiplay]. The event will be held at [http://www.thenec.co.uk/ The NEC] in Birmingham, England from the 25th to the 28th of August 2017. A £5,000,000 prize pool is up for grabs.

== Prizes ==
{{prize pool start}}
{{prize pool slot|place=1|usdprize= 3,000,000|localprize = 0|tbd |lastvs1= |lastscore1= |lastvsscore1= }}
{{prize pool slot|place=2|usdprize= 2,000,000|localprize = 0|tbd|lastvs1= |lastscore1= |lastvsscore1= }}
{{prize pool slot|place=3|usdprize= 1,000,000|localprize = 0|tbd|lastvs1= |lastscore1= |lastvsscore1= }}
{{prize pool slot|place=4|usdprize= 0,000,000|localprize = 0|tbd|lastvs1= |lastscore1= |lastvsscore1= }}
{{Prize pool end}}

== Invite Group Participants ==

Not all teams participating in the Invite Group have been announced or confirmed yet.

{{Box|start|padding=2em}}
{{6sTeamCard
|team=Ascent
|image=AscentEsports.png
|scout1=corsa |scout1flag=us
|scout2=yomps |scout2flag=us
|roamer=rando |roamerflag=us
|pocket=Ma3la |pocketflag=us
|demoman=Bdonski |demomanflag=us
|medic=Nursey |medicflag=us
|notes=
}}
{{6sTeamCard
|team=Lowpander
|image=Lowpander.png
|scout1=Funs|scout1flag=wales
|scout2=Mr.Epic |scout2flag=ru
|roamer=Muuki |roamerflag=fi
|pocket=uubers |pocketflag=lv
|demoman=Hildreth |demomanflag=uken
|medic=Crayon|medicflag=ireland
|notes=
}}
{{Box|break|padding=2em}}
{{6sTeamCard
|team=Team SVIFT
|image=TeamSVIFT.jpg
|scout1=astt |scout1flag=fi
|scout2=SVMZI |scout2flag=de
|roamer=Silentes |roamerflag=en
|pocket=b4nny |pocketflag=us
|demoman=alle |demomanflag=se
|medic=Jim Vickers |medicflag=en
|notes=
}}
{{Box|end|padding=2em}}

== Open Group Participants ==

Teams participating in the Open Group have not yet been announced.

== Additional content ==
===Streams===
* {{flag|usuk}} [https://www.twitch.tv/dreamhackcs WARHURYEAH.GG]

===VODs===

===Highlights===

== References ==
{{reflist}}